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CONSERVATK
BULLETIN
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Harold L. Ickes, Secretary
OFFICE OF THE COORDINATOR OF FISHERIES
Ira N. Gabrielson, Deputy Coordinator
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE - WASHINGTON • 1944
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D. C. — Price 10 cents
CONTENTS
page
Introduction 3
The fisheries 4
The fishing grounds =. 6
The South Atlantic coast 6
TheGulfcoast 7
Boats, men, and fishing gear 8
Marketing the catch 8
Biographies of the fish and shellfish of the region 9
Mullet 9
Spanish mackerel 12
Kingfish L3
Bluefish 14
Red snapper 1G
Groupers 17
Sea trouts 19
Redfish , 21
Black drum 22
Shrimp 24
The oyster 20
The blue crab 28
Other fish and shellfish 31
Menhaden 31
Shad 32
Pompano 33
Snook 34
Grunts 35
Sheepshead 35
Blue runner 37
Crevalle_ 37
Flounders 38
Sharks 39
Spiny lobster 41
Hard-shell clam 41
Bay scallop 42
Appendix 43
The nutritive value of fish and shellfish ' 43
General guides for selecting and preparing fish 43
Bibliography 45
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2013
http://archive.org/details/fishshellfishofsOOcars
Fish and Shellfish
of the
South Atlantic and Gulf Coasts
By Rachel L. Carson, Aquatic Biologist
Office of the Coordinator of Fisheries
EVER SINCE the first settlements were made in the region, the waters
bordering the southern Atlantic coast and the shores of the Gulf of
Mexico have furnished food. Shrimp, oysters, crabs, and shorefish,
abundant in the warm southern bays and sounds, insured the early
colonists against starvation and later formed an article of trade with
settlements removed from the coast, upriver and in the foothills of the
mountains. Little by little the fisheries of the region developed, and
now the South supplies the United States with practically all of its
shrimp, a third of its crabs, a fourth of its oysters, and a number of
choice fishes that are not taken anywhere else in abundance, like the
red snapper, the Spanish mackerel, and the pompano.
Although mature in years, the fisheries of the South Atlantic and
Gulf coasts have by no means completed their development. With a
coastline more than 2,500 miles long as the crow flies, the region produces
only a little more than half a billion pounds of fishery products — 14 per-
cent of the total yield of the fisheries of the United States and Alaska.
With a bewildering variety of life in its waters — more kinds of fish and
shellfish than are found anywhere else in the country — the region has
developed only five major fisheries: the menhaden, shrimp, mullet, crab,
and oyster industries. Of all other species available, none are caught
in quantities exceeding 10,000,000 pounds.
Part of this slow development has resulted from our lack of knowledge,
both of the fishing grounds and of the fish. There has been little scien-
tific exploration of the region, and the fishermen have confined their
operations almost entirely to the waters close inshore. We do not know,
with few exceptions, the areas where fish may congregate offshore, or
whether such areas exist. We know very little of the life histories of
some of the most important species of the region, so that we can only
guess how large a fishery they might support. Some of the species which
we know to be abundant cannot now be fully utilized because of the
limitations of the present methods of handling the catch.
The southern fisheries are a fertile field for exploration which will
reveal whether they may in time yield an even larger and more valuable
seafood harvest.
CONSERVATION BULLETIN 37
THE FISHERIES
Cape Hatteras is the Mason and Dixon Line of the marine world.
North of it lie the waters inhabited by the cold-water fishes of the
northern ocean, species like the sea herring, the common mackerel, cod,
silver hake, and pollock. South of the Cape the truly southern fauna
begins. Spanish mackerel and kingfish, mullet, bluefish, spotted sea
trout, red snapper, groupers — these are a few of the many species that
belong to the warm waters of the South and are caught in important
quantities nowhere else. To be sure, many of them make occasional or
Table 1. — Fish and shellfish landed in the South Atlantic and Gulf states in 19Jfi
in quantities exceeding 100,000 pounds.1
Pounds
Value to
fishermen
FISH
Alewives or river herring
Bluefish
Blue runner
Carp
Catfish and bullhead
Crappie
Crevalle
Croaker
Drum:
Black
Red or redfish
Flounders
Groupers
Harvestfish
Hickory shad
Jewfish
King mackerel
King whiting
Menhaden
Mojarra
Mullet
Muttonfish
Pinfish
Pompano
Sea bass
Sea catfish
Shad
Sharks
Sheepshead (salt-water)
Snappers:
Mangrove
Red
Snook or sergeantfish
Spanish mackerel
Spot
Squeteagues or sea trout:
Gray
Spotted
White
Striped bass
Sunfish
Tenpounder
White perch
Yellowtail
SHELLFISH
Crabs:
Hard
Soft and peelers
Shrimp
Spiny lobster
Clams, hard
Oysters, market:
Public, spring
Public, fall
Private, spring
Private, fall
Scallops, bay
Turtles, soft-shell
3
1
250
37
,115,900
,438,400
780 , 700
438 , 000
,486,200
741,900
238,700
,421,400
857,900
,594,800
,064,900
, 184 . 000
434 , 500
371,500
138,300
,478,000
,426,600
,076,800
394,900
,078,100
404,000
130,100
562 , 900
420 , 800
377 , 500
,344,400
,260,000
628,900
204.900
,523,800
470,000
450,900
,448,500
630,500
,311,900
217,800
539,900
, 104 , 800
227,100
108,200
59,800
33,321,100
543 , 700
150,540,600
463 , 500
1,240,900
12,742,100
2,367,400
3,391,900
2,449,300
162,200
146,600
$110,896
178.166
11,883
19,662
199,717
23,857
3 , 385
89,634
37,945
98,045
83 , 555
206,067
12,735
12,842
4,381
155,860
41,721
823 , 202
6,688
L, 378, 161
23 , 098
2,586
137,321
19,660
7,056
189,529
25,200
19,415
9,359
577,341
24,519
320,746
85,989
181,745
512,207
8,801
59,389
63,144
5,052
3,795
5,338
528,497
83,311
,893,360
31,501
112,638
744,152
185,372
195,552
137,674
21,182
2,204
Source : Fishery Statistics of the United States, 1940. Statistical Digest 4, Fish and Wildlife Servic;
FISH AND SHELLFISH 0
even regular excursions into the northern area, but they reach their full
tide of abundance only along southern shores.
.Because it lies a third above and two thirds below Cape Hatteras,
North Carolina has a fish fauna of mixed northern and southern forms.
Some of the fish taken in large quantity in its waters — such as the
croaker, spot, alewives, and gray sea trout — also are found in great
numbers in the Chesapeake Bay and along the Middle Atlantic coast.
These species are not described in the present bulletin because they are
not abundant elsewhere in the South and their description is being
reserved for a future publication on the fishes of the Middle Atlantic
coast and the Chesapeake Bay.
In 1940, a year fairly representative of pre-war conditions, commercial
fishermen of the States from North Carolina to Texas brought in a total
of 573,533,000 pounds. An enormous variety of edible fish and shellfish
were represented in that catch, in all more than 85 different kinds. But
the diversity of the seafood produced by the southern fisheries is more
apparent than real. Ninety percent of the entire catch consists of five
species of aquatic life, while the remaining 10 percent is made up of
75 species caught in quantities ranging from moderate down to small
or insignificant. The menhaden alone, a silvery member of the herring
family which schools in enormous numbers at the surface, comprises
nearly half the catch of all species for the entire region. Shrimp con-
tributes another quarter. Mullets, crabs, and oysters make up 3 to
6 percent each. (Detailed statistics of the catch are given in table 1.)
As might be expected, the eight southern coastal States differ a great
deal in the productivity of their fisheries. Florida, with its long coast-
line, has a larger catch than any other State in the group, contributing
about one-third of the total yield. North Carolina is a close second,
with 30 percent of the total, and Louisiana is third, with 22 percent.
Mississippi furnishes 7 percent, Texas 4, and Georgia, Alabama, and
South Carolina 1 to 2 percent each. (See table 2 for poundages.)
Not only are Florida's fisheries the most productive, they are also
the most varied, drawing on 67 species — 52 fish and 15 shellfish. This
is exclusive of a number of fishes like the tarpon, bonefish, and others
taken only by sport fishermen. North Carolina, with 43 commercial
species, comes next, while Mississippi, drawing on only 17 species, has
the least diversified fisheries (table 2).
Table 2. — Miscellaneous information on the fisheries of the South Atlantic and
Gulf States.1
State
Num-
ber of
species
in com-
mercial
catch
Total
landings
(in pounds)
Value of
catch to
fishermen
Num-
berof
fisher-
men
Num-
ber of
ves-
sels 2
Largest
fishery
of State
Most
valuable
fishery of
State
North Carolina
South Carolina
43
21
19
67
26
17
24
22
170,581,000
9,445,900
12,671,700
187,492,200
11,344,300
38,002,300
126,626,800
19,369,200
$1,864,164
265 , 828
380 , 630
5,004,612
561,911
623,110
4,951,493
992,697
7,113
1,341
1,178
8,902
1,134
1,877
4,858
1,538
184
35
77
203
41
248
288
69
Menhaden
Crab
Shrimp
Menhaden
Shrimp
Menhaden
Shrimp
Shrimp
Menhaden
Oysters
Shrimp
Shrimp
Shrimp
Shrimp
Mississippi
Texas..
Total ..
575 , 533 , 400
14,644,895
27,941
1,145
1 Based on statistics for 1940.
2 Exclusive of motor boats, row boats, and other small craft.
5 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
The menhaden industry of the South is centered in North Carolina,
which produces slightly more than half the total yield of the area.
Louisiana is the shellfish capital of the region, with the southern fisheries
for shrimp, crabs, and oysters all most highly developed in that State.
Florida, however, is the headquarters of a most imposing array of im-
portant fisheries: those for mullet, red snapper, Spanish mackerel, king-
fish, bluefish, sharks, grouper, and redfish, as well as the smaller fisheries
for spiny lobster, pompano, sheepshead, blue runner, jacks, and clams.
THE FISHING GROUNDS
It is 900 miles from Cape Hatteras to the Florida Keys, and it is
1600 miles from the Keys around the Gulf to the mouth of the Rio
Grande. That is a total of 2,500 miles of coastline, measured directly
and without following all the small irregularities, the numerous islands,
the sounds and bays and marshes that make the South Atlantic and
Gulf coasts the shore fisherman's paradise. Unlike the New England
fishermen, who take most of their catch on grounds lying far offshore
and perhaps hundreds of miles from the home port, the fishermen of the
South do the greater part of their fishing in a narrow band of water only
a few miles wide bordering the coast on its ocean side, and in the thou-
sands of square miles of protected bays and sounds that are so char-
acteristic of the southern coast.
South Atlantic coast
The eastern boundary of North Carolina is a chain of narrow islands
that form a barrier protecting the coast from the pounding of the Atlantic
breakers. Between the islands, locally called "banks," and the coast lie
a series of sounds — Currituck, Albemarle, Pamlico, Core, and Bogue —
some 3,000 square miles of fishing waters connected with the outside
by several inlets. Shad, striped bass, and river herring pass through
these sounds at spawning time, and sea trout, mullet, croakers, crabs,
and oysters abound in them. On the ocean shore, off the banks, there
is good fishing for other species. Famous bluefish grounds lie between
Cape Henry and Cape Lookout. Every fall the spawning runs of mullet
pass in enormous schools along the outer and inner shores of the banks.
Some of the best menhaden grounds are in the waters off Cape Lookout,
and sheepshead, drum, and Spanish mackerel are abundant in the deep,
protected bight west of the Cape.
Southward along the coast an arc of almost unbroken beach extends
from Cape Fear to South Carolina's Winyah Bay; then follows a
broken coastline of marshes, bays, and barrier islands through the
remainder of South Carolina and Georgia, nearly to the St. Johns River.
Then the broad, sandy beaches of eastern Florida sweep in a long curve
to the Keys and the beginning of the Gulf coast.
This much of the South Atlantic coastline can be seen and understood
by everyone. We know much less about what lies beneath the surface,
the undersea hills and valleys and currents that determine where the
fish will congregate and in what numbers. Compared with offshore
New England — fished, charted, and explored since the days of John
Cabot — the South Atlantic and, as we shall see, the Gulf, are an unknown
marine wilderness.
We do know that the continental shelf, the gently sloping portion of
the ocean floor that extends from the tide lines out to the 100-fathom
FISH AND SHELLFISH 7
depth, is only about 30 miles wide off Cape Hatteras and averages 75
to 100 miles south of Hatteras to midway down the Florida coast, when
it narrows suddenly to a mere 5 or 6 miles off Palm Beach and Miami.
Since most fish are confined to the shallow waters over the continental
shelf, and seldom venture out over true oceanic depths, the width of the
shelf has a direct bearing on the fisheries.
Offshore from Hatteras and Lookout, occasional beds of coral show
the beginning of a truly southern fauna. Off the coasts of South Carolina
and Georgia numerous fishing banks are scattered over the continental
shelf between the 10-fathom and 100-fathom line. These are like sub-
marine hills rising above a deeper-lying plain, their tops covered with
sand, coral rock, waving sea fans, and shells. Sea bass, jacks, flounders,
snappers, grunts, and sharks are some of the species fishermen take on
the southern offshore banks.
Gulf coast
Off the southern tip of Florida a long chain of islands — the Florida
Keys — stretches out south and west into the Gulf like giant stepping
stones. Their southern border swept by the Gulf Stream, the Keys arc
almost inconceivably rich in marine life of all kinds, both fishes and
the smaller invertebrate life they feed on. Some fish are more abundant
on the southern side of the reef in the warmer Gulf Stream water, others
on the north side. Not infrequently a "norther" drives kingfish and
other species through the narrow channels between the reefs, making
good fishing while the schools are concentrated in a restricted area.
Above the Keys, the west coast of Florida is broken into a maze of
waterways about the "Ten Thousand Islands," then swings north in
a long arc, interrupted here and there by deeply indenting bays. The
continental shelf is very wide off this coast — as much as 130 miles — and
is crossed and furrowed by ledges and gullies where fish abound. Its
outer margin is rocky and dotted with patches of coral.
Westward, bays, sounds, marshes, and chains of islands mark the
coast to the great delta of the Mississippi, built so far into the Gulf that
off its tip the continental shelf is only about 10 miles wide. Beyond the
Mississippi are more coastal marshes for mile after mile, bordered on
the seaward side by barrier beaches, marked by vast nearly enclosed
lagoons and bayous. These inside waters grow fine oysters, and they
swarm with young shrimp. Redfish, trout, black drum and other fishes
come in from the open sea as young fish and grow and mature in them.
Of the open Gulf we know very little, for it is a region that has been
strangely neglected by oceanographers, and with the single exception
of the combined fishery for red snappers and groupers, the Gulf fisheries
have been confined to a narrow band of coastal waters. The area of
the Gulf is about 700,000 square miles. Except at the mouth of the
Mississippi and again at Vera Cruz, the continental shelf which rims
its basin is wide — 100 to 130 miles. The deepest part of the Gulf's floor
— Sigsbee Deep off the coast of Yucatan — lies more than two miles
below the surface, and much of the remaining area is from one to two
miles deep. The Gulf has no offshore islands except the Keys of Florida
and Yucatan, and the island of Cuba. Its tides have a range of only two
to four feet; its currents sweep in a vast rotational movement about its
shores, clockwise, leaving its boundaries by way of the Strait of Florida
and pouring north through the Atlantic Ocean as the river of warm
blue water known as the Gulf Stream.
g CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
BOATS, MEN, AND FISHING GEAR
Before the war, which made it necessary to use many fishing boats
for other purposes, the fishing fleet of the South Atlantic and Gulf
coasts was the largest in the United States and Alaska. While the
number of large vessels was slightly below the number of similar craft
used on the Pacific coast of the United States — 1,145 compared with
1 ,563 — the total number of vessels, motor boats, and miscellaneous small
craft fishing out of southern Atlantic and Gulf ports was 16,194. The
three Pacific Coast States had the next largest fleet, with 9,105 craft,
end Alaska the third largest fleet of 5,138.
The largest vessels operating in the southern area are the menhaden
purse seiners, which cruise about in the larger bays or in the open ocean
with a lookout posted in the crow's nest watching for schooling men-
haden. They take with them several small boats from which fishermen
carry out the actual operation of setting the seine- around the fish. The
large menhaden seiners probably have the greatest annual production,
per boat, of any vessels operating in the United States fisheries, running
from 7,000,000 to 10,000,000 pounds.
Another large and important section of the southern fishing fleet is
made up of the shrimp trawlers, which bring in most of the catch of
this valuable crustacean. The trawlers drag cone-shaped nets along
the bottom of the sounds or ocean where the shrimp congregate in great-
est numbers.
Another good sized fishing vessel seen in the South is the schooner
type, modeled after the famous Gloucester schooners, which operates
chiefly out of Pensacola and visits the red snapper banks off the coast
of Yucatan.
A variety of smaller boats is used in operating the gill nets, haul
seines, and dredges which are important in many southern fisheries.
Pound nets, common in North Carolina, but not farther south, are
tended usually by small motor boats. Fyke nets, dip nets, and cast
nets may be operated from the shore.
In 1940, approximately 28,000 persons were directly engaged in fishing
in the States from North Carolina to Texas. Florida reported the largest
number of fishermen — 8,902. North Carolina and Louisiana followed,
with 7,113 and 4,858, respectively. Each of the other States had be-
tween one and two thousand fishermen.
MARKETING THE CATCH
Although the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts furnish more than half
a billion pounds of fish and shellfish annually, nearly half of this amount
consists of menhaden, practically all of which is now processed into
meal and oil and so does not enter the ordinary marketing channels.
Some 250,000,000 to 300,000,000 pounds remain for distribution as
fresh, frozen, canned, salted, or smoked products.
Most of the fish landed at southern ports enters the fresh-fish markets.
Despite the recent introduction here and there of the modern processing
methods of preparing fillets, steaks, and tenderloins, the most prevalent
custom is to ship the fish in the round, that is, without preliminary
dressing. This fact makes it difficult for the southern States to compete
with New England as a fresh-fish center, for in that area much of the
catch is routinely processed in modern plants which turn out a con-
veniently handled product, neatly packaged and quick frozen. At
present the necessary shore facilities — filleting plants, freezing and
FISH AND SHELLFISH 9
storage establishments, and the like — are extremely limited in the
South. Likewise, the skilled labor necessary to operate such plants is
almost unobtainable under war conditions.
The piesent methods of handling the catch are particularly unsatis-
factory as applied to some of the most important fisheries of the region,
such as the mullet and Spanish mackerel fisheries. Extremely heavy
catches of these species are made in a short period, so that in practice
it has often proved impossible for the fresh fish markets to handle all
the fish that are caught. The problem could be solved if means were
available to dress the fish by filleting or other suitable means, quick
freeze it, and hold it for distribution in accordance with market demands.
Canning in the South is limited almost entirely to shrimp and oysters.
It has been the practice to can the greater part of the shrimp, and this
market form has undoubtedly been most familiar throughout the
wide area in which shrimp is distributed, but there is now a strong
trend toward freezing more shrimp and canning less. Practically all
the oyster canning in the United States is done in the southern States,
and Biloxi, Miss., cans more oysters than any other city in the world.
Geographically, the products of the southern fisheries (exclusive of
the canned pack) are distributed chiefly in the area bounded by the
Mississippi River on the west and the Ohio River on the north. Certain
species, however, have a much wider distribution. Probably shrimp and
red snapper are shipped to more distant cities than any other southern
seafoods.
From the South Atlantic coast and all of Florida the heaviest ship-
ments go north along the Atlantic coast. New York is an important
market for this area, which ships as far north as Massachusetts, Michi-
gan, and Illinois, and as far west as Texas and Kansas. From the
Gulf coast many shipments go north by truck and freight up the Mis-
sissippi Valley. Shipments are also made to the Middle Atlantic area,
the New England States, the Rocky Mountain area, and the Pacific
coast.
BIOGRAPHIES OF THE FISH AND SHELLFISH OF THE REGION
Mullet (Mugil cephalus and M. curema)
The mullet is the most important food fish of the South. It supports
the most valuable fishery in the States of Florida and South Carolina,
and is caught in larger quantity than any other fish with the exception
of menhaden in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi. In the whole area
from North Carolina to Texas, the catch of mullet is exceeded only
by menhaden, which is used primarily for the manufacture of oil and
meal, rather than as food, and by shrimp, the South 's major seafood
product.
Being an abundant and modestly priced fish, mullet is one of the
staple foods of the lower income groups in southern coastal cities.
Despite its low price, it is one of the better food fishes. It has a tender,
firm-textured flesh which contains a clear yellow oil with a mild and
nutlike flavor.
Mullets are found throughout the world and there are about 100
different species, most of which are tropical. The most abundant
United States species, the striped or jumping mullet (Mugil cephalus)
itself has a wide distribution. On our east coast it occurs all the way
from Cape Cod to Brazil. Occasionally a few stray mullet appear
10
CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
north of the Cape, in the Gulf of Maine, but such an occurrence is rare
and there are no regular fisheries north of the Carolinas. On the Pacific
coast of the Americas mullet are found from Monterey to Chile and
westwood to the Hawaiian Islands and Japan. In the eastern Atlantic
they are common on the southern European coast and in the Mediter-
ranean. They are often mentioned in the writings of the ancient
Romans, and in Egypt they have been cultivated for centuries in the
overflow deltas of the Nile.
The white mullet, M. cnrema, is taken commercially in only a few
localities, although it occurs all the way from Cape Cod to Brazil. It
is abundant about Key West and the other Florida Keys, where it
makes up the greater part of the mullet catch. It is so similar in
Figure 1.— The jumping mullet gets its name from its habit of leaping as much as three feet
out of the water, making it easy for fishermen to spot schools of this fish.
appearance and habits to the striped mullet that fishermen do not
often distinguish between them.
In their relationships, the mullets are closest to the silversides, al-
though much larger than these shimmering little minnows, and to the
barracudas. The striped mullet is a rather stout bodied fish with large
scales and averages 2 or 3 pounds in weight. Probably the record
size is 10 pounds. A distinctive mark is the fact that it has two well
separated dorsal fins, and that the more forwardly placed one is held
stiffly erect, like a small sail, by its four spines. The color of the fish
is a silvery grey, darker on the back, and with dusky stripings along the
sides. Young mullet are a beautiful silver color, like a freshly minted
dime.
Mullet live in coastal waters and often run up into brackish river
mouths to feed. In South America, Dr. Samuel Hildebrand, ichthy-
ologist of the Fish and Wildlife Service, has found them as much as
one hundred miles above the mouths of rivers, sometimes above high
waterfalls. They are seldom if ever found in fresh water in the United
States.
In North Carolina, where there are important mullet fisheries, these
fish usually spend the summer in the bays and sounds, feeding on the
vegetation of the bottom. In the fall, apparently at a time when the
spawn is maturing, the fish begin a mass exodus from these inside
waters, passing out through the inlets and moving southward along the
coast and presumably out to sea. At this time of year enormous catches
■ — sometimes as much as 62,000 pounds in a single haul of the net — are
made by the mullet fishermen.
Because mullet are schooling fish and especially because they have
FISH AND SHELLFISH 11
a remarkable habit of jumping as much as three feet out of the water,
fishermen can easily sight an approaching school and set their nets
about it. On the North Carolina coast they usually wait on the beach,
boats and net in readiness, until the lookout on top of a nearby dune
gives the signal that the fish are coming. With one end of the net
held on shore, the seine is then carried out in a large semicircle around
the fish and the free end brought in to the beach. The men then jump
out of the boats and wade out into the surf to hold down the lead line
in the lower margin of the net with their feet, otherwise the mullet will
escape under the net. At best a number of them will leap over the
cork line, sometimes making the mistake of jumping into the boats.
Often two nets are set, one outside the other, so that the fish that escape
the inner net may be caught in the outer. The net is drawn in as rapidly
as possible and finally the central part, which now forms a sort of
bag containing the fish, is hauled up on the beach, all the mullet flapping
against the wet sand in their efforts to escape.
In Florida mullet are caught chiefly at night. Although unable then
to see the fish unless the night is bright, fishermen can hear a school
splashing and so tell when to set the net. Gill nets, in which the fish
become entangled as they attempt to pass through the meshes, are often
used in Florida.
Almost three-fourths of the entire U. S. mullet catch of 35 to 40
million pounds is taken in Florida, chiefly on the west coast. Although
far below Florida in production, Alabama ranks second in the mullet
fishery, followed by North Carolina. Mullet are present in abundance
throughout the Gulf of Mexico, but they have been almost entirely
neglected in Louisiana and Texas. When these fisheries are developed,
production of this excellent fish can be greatly increased and it can
be supplied in larger quantity to northern cities.
The season of greatest abundance is from April through November,
heaviest runs about Beaufort, N. C, occur usually in September, while
the peak of activity in the Florida fishery comes in November. In that
State the fishery in most counties is closed between December 1 and
January 10, to protect the fish during the spawning period.
The mullet lends itself especially well to cultivation, and has been
raised in ponds for many centuries in various parts of the world. The
ancient Romans practiced mullet culture, and so did the native chief-
tains of the Hawaiian and Philippine Islands, who had large numbers
of fish ponds built throughout the islands. The mullet and milkfish
are still the principal species raised in these ponds.
Some recent experiments at the Beaufort, N. C, laboratory of the Fish
and Wildlife Service indicate that mullet culture in shallow, enclosed
areas along the South Atlantic coast may be a future fish-cultural de-
velopment of some importance. Dr. Herbert Prytherch, in charge of the
laboratory, says that mullet which he placed in such an enclosure as
two- or three-inch fish grew to an exceptional size in two years' time.
The mullet do not require feeding, provided the growth of vegetation
is stimulated by fertilization.
At present mullet usually reach the market in the round, i.e., without
being dressed, and these fish may be either fresh or frozen. Some
mullet is now being filleted and popular demand will probably lead to
more of them being prepared in this convenient form after the war,
when labor and plant facilities permit. Part of the catch is salted, this
product being chiefly for export. The roe also is eaten.
Quite a range of sizes is available for the purchaser — anything from
half-pound fish, which are best suited for broiling, to large five-pounders,
12 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
which should be baked. The Fish and Wildlife Service will furnish, on
request, a leaflet containing seven laboratory-tested recipes for the
preparation of mullet.1
Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus)
The Spanish mackerel is predominantly a fish of warm southern
waters but despite this fact its distribution is astonishingly wide. It may
be found as far north as Maine and as far south as Brazil. It occurs on
the far side of the Atlantic in waters that wash the African coast and it
lives in the Pacific from San Diego to the Galapagos Islands. In the
United States only a few thousand pounds are taken on the Pacific
coast, however, and although commercial catches are reported on the
east coast all the way from New Jersey to Texas, the real center of
abundance of this species is in Florida.
12,693
Figure 2.— The Spanish mackerel roves the warm southern oceans in search of its prey, the
smaller schooling fishes.
Only a little more than a hundred years ago, the Spanish mackerel
was the subject of one of the shortest biographies ever written. "A fine
and beautiful fish; comes in July," wrote the ichthyologist Mitchell in
his "Fishes of New York," published in 1815. Even in the late 1800's
not a great deal could be added to this one-sentence description. The
Spanish mackerel was known only as an excellent food fish and a gamy
fighter, which appeared in the Middle Atlantic area during the summer
months, retiring in the fall to some unknown wintering ground. Where
the fish goes in the winter is no longer a mystery, for most of Florida's
6,000,000 pound catch is made between November and March, when
the Spanish mackerel is absent from more northern waters. It is now
apparent that there is a northward migration in the spring, bringing it
into the North Carolina area during April and into the lower Chesapeake
Bay by May or June. With the first signs of fall and chilling waters,
however, it returns to the more comfortable south.
Unlike the groupers, snappers, and drums, which lurk in coral patches
or roam over deep-lying ocean bottoms, the Spanish mackerel live almost
entirely at the surface. Traveling, they move in schools, and are easily
seen at the surface as they pursue their food or clear the water in
apparently playful leaps. According to Goode (1887) "the surface of
the Chesapeake or the Gulf of Mexico is sometimes broken up for miles
by the movements of large schools of these fishes, while the air is en-
livened by the screaming flocks of terns, which follow them, to gather up
the fragments of their feasts."
1 Fishery Leaflet 48, Striped mullet and their preparation for the table. Mimeographed, 4 pp.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior, Chicago 54, 111.
FISH AND SHELLFISH 13
Schools of menhaden are the principal source of food for the predatory
Spanish mackerel, which also feed on any other schooling species, such
as mullet, silversides, and the common Boston mackerel where the ranges
of the two species overlap.
This is considered an even more beautiful fish than the famed dolphin.
It is a deep blue with iridescent tones of gold and purple on the back and
sides and silvery below, while along the flanks are three irregular rows
of gold spots, "like new gold dollars," as an early writer put it.
When they are youngsters, only an ichthyologist could distinguish the
Spanish mackerel from its close relatives the kingfishes or ceros (Scom-
beromorus cavalla and S. regalis) but the adults develop characteristics
which make it fairly easy to tell them apart. The Spanish mackerel is
a smaller fish than either of the others, averaging only about 2 pounds,
and attaining a maximum weight of 20 to 25 pounds. S. regalis, which
is abundant in this country only about the Florida Keys, averages 5
pounds and may reach 35 ; S. cavalla averages 7 and reaches a maximum
of 50 to 75. Apart from size differences, if a fish of this group has yellow
spots on its flanks and a gradually curving lateral line, it is a Spanish
mackerel; if it has spots and one or two continuous black lines along its
sides it is S. regalis; if it has no (or at most a scattered few) spots and a
lateral line that drops abruptly opposite the second dorsal fin, it is
S. cavalla.
The Spanish mackerel spawns while on its summer migration, at least
from the vicinity of the Carolinas to Long Island, but we do not know
whether spawning may also take place north and south of these limits.
Hildebrand and Cable (1940) found larvae only a few days old in the
open ocean off Beaufort, N. C, from late June until early September, but
none in the inshore waters. The lower Chesapeake Bay, however, is a
spawning ground for Spanish mackerel, although the fish are not as
numerous in the Bay as they formerly were.
In Florida, where almost the entire commercial catch is made, fisher-
men take the Spanish mackerel in gill nets and purse seines. Most of the
gill netting is done at night, because the fish are unable to see the net in
the darkness and are more likely to gill themselves. The boats carry
powerful searchlights to aid the crews in locating the fish. When the
mackerel are sighted, the fishermen set their nets around the school as
quickly as possible, marking its position by lanterns mounted on cork
floats. The next step is to frighten the fish as much as possible, causing
them to plunge against the net and become entangled by their gill covers
in its meshes. This is done by splashing in the water with oars, or by
rowing directly into the space enclosed by the nets. Although there is
nothing to prevent the fish from swimming deep and escaping under the
net, their habits are such that they ordinarily remain at the surface,
either gilling themselves or escaping over the cork line.
As long as Spanish mackerel have been caught, they have been con-
sidered one of the choicest species of the east coast, ranking close to the
pompano in popular esteem. They are usually marketed whole, and are
best broiled or baked. Shipments are made throughout eastern United
States with New York one of the most important markets.
Kingfish (Scomberomorus cavalla)
The kingfish, giant relative of the prized Spanish mackerel, takes top
rank among the game fishes of America and is only a little less valued
than its relative as a food fish. It occurs in great numbers at certain
14 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
seasons off the coast of Florida and rarely is seen as far north as Cape
Qod. Southward, the limit of its range is Brazil.
The only important production center for the kingfish in the United
States is Florida, where three to three and a half million pounds are
taken. A very small catch is made in Texas. In Florida the related
species, S. regalis, taken chiefly about the Keys, is also called the kingfish
and fishermen seldom distinguish between them.
The season for kingfish in Florida is about the same as that for the
Spanish mackerel, or from November to March. It is taken along both
the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, chiefly by trolling, and is found in large
schools, ranging the waters of the open sea in search of menhaden and
other small fish. It is noted for its remarkable leaps, often clearing the
Figure 3. — The kingfish is a favorite of Southern sport fishermen and also a choice food fish.
water by 10 feet or more. Fishermen seeking Spanish mackerel often
take the kingfish incidentally, because of the similar habits of the two
species, but it is so strong and has such sharp teeth that it does consid-
erable damage to the gear.
Kingfish taken by trolling usually run from 15 to 30 pounds in weight,
but the maximum size for the species is about 75 pounds. Its size,
strength, speed, and great fighting powers make it one of the most
important game fishes on the coasts of Florida and North Carolina.
Like the Spanish mackerel, it is a fish of fine flavor, with few bones.
The larger fish are sold in steaks, the smaller ones whole. Most of the
catch is marketed along the eastern seaboard, Richmond and New York
being especially important markets for this species.
Bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix)
The bluefish is another warm-water species which migrates up and
down the Atlantic coast from Florida to Massachusetts following the
schools of menhaden and other small fish and avoiding chilly climates.
In midwinter bluefish are to be found in southern Florida, where the
bulk of the commercial catch is made. Like migrant birds, they turn
north with the spring, and by March and April large schools are passing
the coasts of the Carolinas. They reach Long Island in late April or
early May, Massachusetts by late May. In some years, probably when
they are especially abundant, they pass Cape Cod and appear during
the summer months in Massachusetts Bay and as far north as Maine,
but these waters are beyond the range of their normal summer
wanderings.
The total United States catch of bluefish was only 2,629,000 pounds in
1940, the most recent year for which we have a complete record. This
was the low point of a catch that has been steadily dropping since 1936,
when nearly 10,000,000 pounds were taken. The entire history of the
fishery for bluefish is one of rapid changes in abundance. Probably the
FISH AND SHELLFISH
15
largest catches — some 20,000,000 pounds — were made about 1900, but
during several periods the yield has fallen as low as the present level.
We know too little about the natural history of the bluefish to be able
to give a satisfactory explanation of these changes in its abundance.
In lean bluefish years it is the custom for sport fishermen to say that
scarcity of menhaden, probably the favorite food of the bluefish, is
responsible. This supposition has never been proved and the records do
not show that the changes in abundance of the two species coincide.
A more probable explanation is that the bluefish, like many other marine
species, is subject to extreme hazards during the first days and weeks
of life from unfavorable winds, currents, and water temperatures, as
well as from the attacks of natural enemies. In the case of the Atlantic
w
Figure 4.— The bluefish, a strong, swift fish of the open sea, may run up to three feet in
length and is a deep bluish green above with silver below.
mackerel it has been proved that if, during the brief spawning period,
the water is unseasonably cold or the set of winds and currents is such
as to carry the young fish out of their normal nursery areas, practically
the entire brood may perish. If this happens two or three years in
succession, there is an acute shortage of mackerel. Perhaps something
very like this happens in the life of the bluefish, but we shall have to
wait until we know more of its life history before we can explain the
ups and downs of abundance.
The bluefish, which commonly attains a weight of 10 pounds (the
record specimen, taken at Nantucket Island, weighed 27 pounds), has
quite a reputation for the size of its appetite and the ferocity of its
attacks on schooling menhaden, mackerel, herring, or other small fishes.
According to old and often quoted accounts, these attacks go far beyond
what is necessary to satisfy the appetites of these bold sea hunters, which
leave a trail of mutilated fish in their wake. Writers of past generations
used to speculate about the number of fish destroyed by bluefish each
year, seldom agreeing in their estimates but always arriving at astronom-
ical figures.
Of all the fish tribe, the closest relative of the bluefish that is widely
known is the pompano, generally voted the choicest food fish of the
Atlantic coast. Like its relative, the bluefish is excellent eating. Since
market sizes run from one to seven pounds, it is sold whole and may be
baked, broiled, or fried, according to size and the preference of the cook.
In Florida, where the only important commercial catches are made,
bluefish are taken usually between mid-December and mid-February.
The same gill nets that take the Spanish mackerel also capture the blue-
fish, although small quantities are taken also by trolling. New York is
an important market for these southern bluefish, which are available at
a season when the fish are absent from northern waters.
16
CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
Red Snapper (Lutianus hlackfordii)
The red snapper is perhaps the most widely known of all the fishes of
the Gulf of Mexico. Although the annual catch — 6 to 7 million pounds
— is not large compared with the major fisheries of the country, the red
snapper is known and highly regarded in many cities in the north, to
which considerable quantities are shipped. It is usually the most color-
ful item in a seafood market's display case or window — a large, bril-
liantly colored fish running up to 30 pounds in weight and 2% feet in
length. Although often sold whole, one of the larger snappers is likely
to be beyond the modern family's capacity and so the present market
forms include steaks and fillets, quick frozen and fresh. Red snapper is
available throughout the year, and the housewife may use any method
of preparation she likes, for it is good broiled, baked, steamed, or
boiled. The meat is juicy, white, and of fine flavor. Most people
consider a baked red snapper one of the choicest delicacies the sea
provides.
Figure 5.— The Gulf coast's red snapper is known all over the United States as a choice
food fish.
Most red snappers are caught in the Gulf, with the most extensive
known fishing grounds — the Campeche 3ank — lying off the coast of
Yucatan and some 400 miles from Pensacola, the principal United States
port for this fish. Small boats out of Galveston, Mobile, Panama City,
and Tampa also fish on the Campeche Bank, taking both snappers and
groupers, which commonly occur on the same grounds. There is also
good fishing for these species around the edges of smaller banks, known
as "lumps," off the United States coast of the Gulf.
At least five species of snappers are taken by United States fishermen,
although the red snapper, Lutianus blackfordii, is caught in much the
largest quantity. About Key West, the yellowtail, Ocyurus chrysurus,
is the most important of all the snappers and is regarded as one of the
choicest of the local food fishes. It averages about a pound and is com-
monly taken on the outer reefs. The gray snapper, L. griseus, is an even
more abundant fish about Key West but because it is also exceedingly
wary not as many are caught. This snapper has an interesting habit of
traveling in schools that may number thousands of individuals. If not
disturbed, such a school may hover in one place for hours, easily seen
through the clear water. The gray snapper is a good food fish and
FISH AND SHELLFISH 17
market sizes are from one-half to five pounds. In commercial import-
ance, the muttonfish (L. analis) probably ranks next to the yellowtail in
the Key West area. It averages about 3 pounds and is an excellent food
fish. The schoolmaster, L. apodus, is also rather common in southern
Florida but its commercial value is less than that of the other species.
Besides the species named many other members of the snapper family
inhabit the waters of the West Indies, and these are among the most
beautiful food fishes of the tropics. In his "American Fishes, " G. Brown
Goode, who first recognized and named the red snapper, says they are
"the tanagers and grosbeaks of the coral reefs."
It is an interesting fact that the red snapper was not named until
1878, although it had been a favorite in southern markets long before
that, and had even been introduced in the markets of New York, Wash-
ington, and throughout the Mississippi Valley. In 1878 Dr. Goode, then
Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, studied a number of
specimens obtained from Florida and decided the fish was a species new
to science. He named it Lutjanus black f or dii: hwtjanus (later spelled
Lutianus) from an Asiatic name for a kindred species; blackfordii in
honor of Eugene G. Blackford, then Commissioner of Fisheries of New
York and an enthusiastic ichthyologist.
Strangely enough, very little is known about the life history of the
red snapper, in spite of the high esteem in which it is held. According
to fishermen, snappers move into comparatively shallow water in the
summer and in the fall move offshore again. At all seasons they seem to
shift from one spot to another according to food supplies. They are
believed to spawn in deep water, during the late summer and fall.
Although the young of related species commonly appear along our
southern shores and may be caught in beach seines, young red snappers
are seldom if ever taken in such localities.
Offshore, the red snappers live in deep holes and rocky gullies where
small fish, crabs, shrimps and other marine creatures which are their
prey are abundant. Usually found on the same grounds with them are
the groupers, which ordinarily outnumber the snappers about two or
three to one. They prefer warm water and if the temperature falls
below 50° they are likely to move off in search of a more congenial
climate. Their only enemies are sharks and a few of the larger carniv-
orous fishes, such as the enormous jewfish.
The center of the red snapper fishery is now Pensacola. From that
port, a round trip to the Campeche Bank takes about 23 days: 4 days
each for the trip out and returning, 15 days fishing. Many of the red
snapper boats are small craft but owing to the skill and experience of
their skippers and crews they are able to weather the heavy blows and
rough seas of the Gulf.
Snappers are taken in water several hundred feet deep, and most of the
catch is made with hook and line. According to Jarvis (1935) a crew of
9 men can haul in from 7,000 to 10,000 pounds a day, depending on the
depth of the water, the tide, and the wind. The large schooners which
fish on the Campeche Bank take most of their catch between October
and April, while the smaller boats fishing along the United States coast,
being more dependent on good weather, operate largely during the
spring and summer.
Groupers (Genera Epinephelus and Mycteroperca)
The groupers belong to one of the largest and most widely distributed
families of fishes in the world — the sea basses or Serranidae. The sea
18
CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
bass tribe is so numerous, affects other fish so directly because all its
members are carnivorous, and is found in so many locations, that it is
usually considered the dominant group of marine fishes. The larger
members of the family are prized as food wherever they occur.
As might be expected in such a large family, many rather diverse
fishes are included in it. The sea basses, groupers, jewfishes, and others
belong to the group, which numbers about 120 species in North and
Central America.
Common names of members of the sea bass family range all the way
from gag, scamp, and tally-wag to such elegant designations as the
princess rockfish. The name grouper is thought to be a corruption of
the Portuguese "garoupa" for a similar species.
Figure 6.— The red grouper is one of the stople food fishes of the south. The five or six
million pound catch does not permit large shipments to other areas.
Probably the most abundant of the groupers, and so the most im-
portant commercially, is the red grouper, Epinephelus morio, found from
Virginia to Rio de Janeiro, and sometimes straggling. northward as far
as Woods Hole, Mass. It grows to a length of 2 or 3 feet and may
weigh from 20 to 40 pounds. Also of some importance commercially are
the Nassau grouper, E. striatus, common from Florida to Brazil and
occasionally taken as far north as North Carolina, and three members of
the genus Mycteroperca — the yellowfish grouper, M. venenosa, the
black grouper, M. bonaci, and the gag, M. microlepis. All of these are
found in greatest abundance on the Gulf coast but most also occur along
the South Atlantic coast and both red and black groupers are reported
from Woods Hole. Whether these are fish that have traveled north in
the Gulf Stream or are permanent residents of New England is some-
thing that has not been determined.
The red grouper is commonly taken on the same grounds with the red
snapper, and is caught with the same kind of gear. On some grounds
the groupers outnumber the snappers by two or three to one, although
they are rather solitary fish and seldom school.
Most groupers are masters of the art of camouflage. When resting
among corals or seaweeds, where there is a background of mingled lights
and shadows, their color pattern is usually banded. This banding, as a
rule, fades out as soon as the fish rises from the bottom and begins to
swim through open water. Then it usually is a very pale and ghostlike
color which makes its outlines hard to discern. Apparently the changes
FISH AND SHELLFISH 19
are not related to motion or inactivity alone ; groupers have been seen to
flash their color bands on and off at the approach of another fish of
different species.
For these interesting observations on camouflage as well as on many
curious habits of groupers and other fishes of the coral reefs we are
chiefly indebted to the late Dr. William Longley. During many hours
spent in a diving helmet, he studied fishes in their natural surroundings
and his accounts (Longley and Hildebrand, 1941) of what he saw made
the sport of fish watching seem at least as interesting as bird watching,
and nearly as practicable. Some groupers, on first acquaintance, would
take food from his hand, while others were more shy. Red groupers, he
found, would sometimes allow him to touch them even though he offered
them no food. He describes one of the bolder fish — a Nassau grouper —
as follows:
One that I fed frequently usually appeared promptly upon my approach from
under the coral heads and got under foot and picked at my pockets, in which I
carried crawfish tails for it. It could scarcely be driven far enough away to photo-
graph, and might easily have been captured with bare hands if it had not been
so strong, hard, and slippery.
One of the grouper family, the spotted jewfish, Promicrops itaiara, is
one of the largest of all fishes, the record specimen weighing 693 pounds.
Small jewfish taken in shallow water weigh up to 10 pounds but the
average weight of those caught commercially about Key West is about
125 pounds. The jewfish is caught on strong tackle resembling that
used for sharks and is often brought in alive to the dock, where it is
hitched to a stake in shallow water to await disposal in the markets.
When the fish are dressed they are usually cut into steaks, and the local
demand is so heavy that only limited quantities are available for other
markets. The spotted jewfish is confined to tropical waters but is found
on both Pacific and Atlantic coasts.
Most of the groupers when fully grown weigh as much as 40 or 50
pounds, although market forms usually range from 5 to 15 pounds.
They are sold whole, or as steaks or fillets. They are usually fried or
broiled, or the fillets may be baked in a sauce. Groupers are caught
throughout the year. The chief market for groupers is in the south-
eastern States, which receive about three fourths of the catch. Outside
this area, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Chicago receive a limited quantity.
Sea Trouts (Genus Cynoscion)
The sea trouts belong to the croaker family and so are related to the
drums, croakers, and spots rather than to the well-known fresh water
trout. They are exclusively marine fishes and one or more species are
found all along our coast from Cape Cod to Texas. The spotted sea trout,
Cynoscion nebulosis, is the most important of the group in the southern
fisheries, being taken in some abundance from North Carolina south with
the center of the fishery in the Gulf. The gray sea trout, C. regalis, is
taken in greater quantity than the spotted in the fisheries of North
Carolina, but farther south it is relatively scarce and in the Gulf it
occurs only occasionally. A third species of some importance is the
white or sand sea trout, C. arenarias, found only in the Gulf. Perhaps
because it is small — 11 to 15 inches — it is rather neglected by fishermen.
The spotted sea trout is an excellent game and food fish that brings a
good price at all seasons of the year and is universally popular in the
markets. The flesh is white, tender, and of delicate flavor. The smaller
sizes are sold whole and are best broiled or fried. The larger sizes may
20
CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
be baked, although they are often filleted and in this form may be
broiled. They are taken throughout the year, but in greatest quantity
in spring, summer, and fall.
The white sea trout, the smaller species, is a good pan fish. Although
it is taken now in small quantities — about a quarter of a million pounds
compared with seven million pounds of the spotted sea trout — probably
it will receive proper appreciation in the future when the larger species
are no longer able to meet the demand.
At least in some areas, the spotted trout, unlike most shore fishes,
remains in the shallow waters inshore throughout the year, instead of
moving out into deeper water to escape the cold. In North Carolina it
is one of the few fishes available to the haul seine fishermen during the
Figure 7.— The spotted sea trout is the most abundant member of its family from the Caro-
lines to Texas.
lean winter season. Ordinary winter temperatures do not affect the
spotted trout adversely, but a period of unusual cold will cause large
numbers of them to become numb and helpless. At such times they
can be picked up by the bushel along the shores. If taken into a heated
room they quickly revive, so the numbing apparently is not necessarily
fatal.
The larger trout travel in small schools, preying on shrimps and small
fishes. They themselves are taken by large predatory fishes and some-
times are followed and harried by schools of porpoises. Unlike the
mullet, famous jumpers, they swim low in the water, making little or no
ripple at the surface. When close to the shore line, they usually move
in with the rising tide and offshore with the ebb.
In contrast to the red and black drums, the spotted trout in Texas
usually spawns in inshore bays and lagoons, rather than in the open
Gulf. The spawning season extends from early April to September in
Texas, in North Carolina probably from May into August. The
spawning female produces from half a million to a million eggs. Prob-
ably most spotted trout mature and spawn for the first time when they
are two years old, and about a foot long. As not infrequently happens
among fishes, the males are smaller than the females, the average dif-
ference being about 2 inches.
In Texas most of the commercial catch is made with hook and line in
the passes or channels and with drag seines in the bays and lagoons. A
small amount of gill-net and trammel-net fishing is done during the-
winter along the northern Texas coast, and a few fish are taken with
light surf seines along the beaches of the Gulf of Mexico. The largest
FISH AND SHELLFISH
21
catches of the spotted trout are made on the west coast of Florida and
in Texas and North Carolina.
Redfish or Red Drum (Sciaenops oceUata)
The redfish is really silver with a suffused gleam of red over its scales,
like a color reflected on metal. Much of this illusive color disappears
soon after the fish is taken from the water, so that the redfish in the
market lacks the splendid coloration of the red snapper or the New
England rosefish. It is, however, a graceful and handsome fish, longer
and more slender than the related black drum, and bearing one or more
conspicuous black spots at the base of the tail fin.
Figure 8.— The redfish is a member of the drum family, but in this species only the males
are equipped to make the characteristic drumming noises, while the females are silent.
As might be expected of a fish that is found in commercial quantities
all the way from New Jersey to Texas, the redfish is known by various
names. Usually called redfish on the Gulf coast where it is most
abundant, it is known as the red drum or spot bass on the Atlantic coast.
Surf anglers, who ask for nothing better than a struggle with this gamy
fish in the tumbling breakers, often call it the channel bass.
For market purposes, redfish from 2 to 25 pounds or so are taken, the
larger sizes being dressed as steaks or fillets. Redfish larger than 25
pounds are of interest chiefly to sportsmen, being less tender and
palatable than younger fish and also being protected in some States as a
spawning reserve. The largest specimens on record were about five feet
long and weighed about 75 pounds.
The redfish is one of the more important food fishes of the Gulf coast
and is taken in some quantity also along the South Atlantic shore. The
total catch is about a million and a half pounds, of which slightly more
than half is caught in Florida. Most of the Florida catch, in turn, is
taken on the west coast. In Texas, where the redfish ranks fourth in
volume of catch among the fin fishes, about a quarter of a million
pounds are caught. The spotted sea trout is the only fish taken in larger
quantity in Louisiana. While the fishing seasons for redfish extend
throughout the year in the various parts of the southern coast, produc-
tion peaks come in the period from February to June and again in the
fall in Texas, and from November to April in Florida.
Although the redfish has been known to fishermen for at least 60 or
70 years, much of its life history has been, and still remains, a mystery.
22 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
Pearson, (1928), studying the species on the southern Texas coast, found
that the fish spawn in that area mainly in the fall of the year. This
part of the coast is bordered by a chain of long, narrow barrier islands
which lie off the mainland, separated from it by a series of bays. Several
channels or passes connect the bays with the open Gulf, and Pearson
found that the redfish tended to spawn to seaward of these passes, the
newly hatched young then drifting in with the tides and currents to the
bays and lagoons. In these protected waters they develop rapidly and
soon reach a stage where they can swim under their own power and
without regard to prevailing currents. They scatter widely, usually
seeking the quiet, grassy bottoms where they find better protection
from enemies than on bare, sandy'bottom. Sometimes this habit reacts
to their destruction, for abnormally low tides may occasionally drain
the water out of these shallow flats and leave the young fish stranded by
the thousand.
With the coming of the cold weather of their first winter, the young
redfish, by this time from 2 to 6 inches long, find their way into the
deeper bayous, which are inland channels between bays or running into
the mainland from the bays. When spring comes they leave the inland
waters for the first time, some going out through the passes to the open
waters of the Gulf, others wandering through the inland bays and
lagoons. Redfish less than a year old have been taken 75 miles from
the nearest pass, through which they must have been carried as eggs or
larval fish.
After their first year most redfish winter in the deeper bays or in the
Gulf, returning to inside waters in the spring. The fall exodus is not
especially noticeable, but the spring migration is undertaken by large
bodies of fish moving together through the various passes, where a good
many are taken by hook and line fishing.
The adult or bull redfish wander up and down the sandy shores of the
Gulf throughout much of the year, assembling in the fall about the
mouths of the passes to spawn. These large fish are seldom seen in the
bays and lagoons, probably because they are easily frightened by the
disturbances made by speedboats in the shallow waters, Pearson suggests.
Redfish are themselves no mean connoisseurs of seafood. Shrimp and
crabs are their favorite foods. They also eat a few fish, especially mullet
and small minnow-like forms, and on occasion take almost any of the
small invertebrate sea life which they come upon in their wanderings.
Redfish grow very rapidly. They are about 13V2 inches long when a
year old and about 21 inches by the end of the second year. It is be-
lieved that as a practical conservation measure, they should be pro-
tected from capture until they are about 16 inches long, or approxi-
mately a year and a half old. At this length they weigh about three
times as much as at 12 inches, and are a more desirable market size.
Black Drum (Pogonias cromis)
The black drum may be taken anywhere from the shores of Long
Island to the mouth of the Rio Grande, but it is only in Texas that it
becomes a really important commercial species. In that State it ranks
third among the commercial fisheries, only the red snapper and the
spotted sea trout being taken in greater quantity. The amount of drum
caught by all United States fishermen during recent years has run from
one to two million pounds annually, and of this Texas furnishes from 50
to 80 percent. Florida, Louisiana, and North Carolina are next in order,
and small amounts are taken in all the other southern States.
FISH AND SHELLFISH
23
The drum is a heavyweight among fishes — the largest specimen known
weighed 146 pounds — but for market purposes the smaller sizes ranging
from 8 to 20 inches long are most desired. These are good food fishes
and lend themselves to broiling or to baking, provided fat is added, for
the flesh is somewhat lean.
Quite aside from its food qualities, the black drum is an exceptionally
interesting fish. It is probably the best musician of all the large family
of drums or croakers to which it belongs. People who have always sup-
posed fish to be universally silent creatures are surprised to learn that
many of them have voices so loud that they can actually be heard a
considerable distance above the surface of the water. These vocal ef-
fects, in the case of the drums, are produced by the vibration of special
Figure 9.— The black drum is sometimes called the sea drum to distinguish it from its
fresh-water relative, the sheepshead or gaspergou.
band-like muscles against the taut air bladder. The black drum is now
believed to be the subject of the old Indian legends in the country about
Pascagoula Bay. According to these tales, mysterious music of sup-
posedly supernatural origin, described as sweet, plaintive, and low,
could be heard on summer evenings apparently issuing from the water.
Fishermen are now well acquainted with these sounds, and know that
they indicate the presence of a large school of drums. Whether the
drumming is a call to attract the opposite sex or an expression of con-
tentment, as at feeding time, is uncertain, but some observers think the
fish are most vocal during their spawning migration. The males are
said to drum very loudly, while the females have softer voices.
The black drum has such large and competent pharyngeal teeth that
it is not hard to guess that its favorite food is shellfish. While generally
reported to be an oyster pirate of no small capacity, in Texas it actually
prefers a small clam which is very abundant in the shallow bays of
that State. These clam beds are well known to the fishermen as yielding-
good hauls of drum. The fish suck the clams up out of the mud in which
they lie and crush the shells ; although they swallow so many shell frag-
ments along with the meats that at least two pounds of them have been
taken from the stomach of a large fish. In some places in Louisiana
stockades or fences have been built to keep the drums off the oyster beds.
They apparently are great gluttons, and when feeding stand on their
24 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
heads with their tails out of the shallow water, oblivious to all but the
meal at hand.
On the Texas coast the drums spend a great deal of their time in the
shallow inshore bays, both summer and winter. Sometimes the water
in the passages to the deeper bays becomes so shallow that they have
great difficulty navigating these channels and often are badly lacerated
by passing over the oyster reefs. It is said that farmers used to chase
the large drum over the shallows with pitchforks.
Young drums look so different from their elders that they were for-
merly supposed, even by ichthyologists, to belong to a different species
and were called the "banded drum" because of the broad brown and
white bands on their sides. When fully grown the drum is a silvery
black with black fins. Those taken in the open Gulf are often more
silvery; those in inshore waters more black. The whisker-like barbels
on the lower jaw are typical of the species.
The scales of the black drum are large and silvery and are extensively
used in making ornamental objects and jewelry. They are so hard and
so firmly embedded that it is necessary to remove them with a hatchet.
Before the spawning season — from late February to May — the black
drum move out through the passes into the Gulf, spawning later near
the entrances. The young drum enter the inside waters soon after
hatching, remaining there until they are at least 4 inches long. A year-
old drum is about 10 inches long; a five-year fish, 23 inches. The fish
spawn when about two years old (14 inches long) and annually there-
after. A four-foot drum produces about 6,000,000 eggs.
Sportsmen are seldom interested in the black drum, which is a more
sluggish fish than its graceful relative, the red drum or redfish. Some of
the commercial catch is made on hook and line, but the heaviest catches
are made with gill nets and seines.
Shrimp (Penaeus setiferus)
The Gulf coast is the chief source of the most popular crustacean
in the United States — the shrimp. The American people eat ten times
as much shrimp as lobster and half again as much as they consume
of crab. And of the 150 million pounds of shrimp taken from the sea
each year for cocktails, salads, and appetizing cooked dishes, 85 per-
cent comes from the Gulf coast and 66 percent from the State of Loui-
siana alone.
It is safe to assume that our fathers and grandfathers, unless they
happened to live along the southern coast, knew very little about
shrimp, for in the 1880's, when our first statistics were gathered, the
catch was only about 10 million pounds. After the turn of the century
it began to increase slowly — 17 million pounds in 1905, 24 million in
1910, 57 million in 1920. By 1927 the yield of this small but delicious
crustacean had passed the 100-million-pound mark, and in 1940 it
reached 150 million pounds.
While canned shrimp has been for many years the most familiar
market form, an interesting trend toward the greater use of fresh and
frozen shrimp set in during the period of the war. During 1943, for
example, the pack of canned shrimp on the Gulf coast declined 25 per-
cent compared with the previous year, although the catch increased
by about 10 percent. Although the immediate reasons for the decline
of shrimp canning are the result of war conditions such as the shortage
of cannery labor and the high prices obtainable for fresh shrimp,
FISH AND SHELLFISH
25
many dealers predict that frozen peeled shrimp will be the mainstay
of the postwar industry.
Since some shrimp are taken throughout the year, even the fresh
product is available at any season, but much the heaviest production
takes place in the late summer and fall — usually the months from
August through December.
In life, the shrimp looks much like a small lobster. However, only
the meat in the tail or abdomen is eaten, for the claws, which in the
lobster furnish a good quantity of meat, are so small that most people
would fail even to notice them. The so-called head contains the vital
organs and is discarded by the packer, only the edible portions being
shipped. The living shrimp is a pale green or gray creature and is
Figure 10. — The shrimp, a small relative of the lobster and the crab, supports the largest
and most valuable food fishery of the South.
semi-transparent. The pink or reddish color develops upon cooking.
The life story of an individual shrimp begins in the spring or sum-
mer, when spawning takes place in the offshore waters. The eggs,
mere specks of living matter, are discharged by the female and prob-
ably remain near the ocean bottom during the period of rapid devel-
opment that precedes hatching. This habit of the shrimp is entirely
different from that of the closely related crabs and lobsters, in which
the females carry the eggs on the abdominal appendages until they
hatch.
The young shrimp hatch from the eggs in a very short time — prob-
ably about 14 hours. The newly hatched larva is able to swim about
for itself and probably leaves the sea bottom very soon and moves
up into the surface waters. As it floats in the currents, feeding on
the minute life about it, the baby shrimp undergoes a series of changes
and finally comes to resemble the adult form. By this time the cur-
rents have carried it in to the coast line, where it enters the shallow
inside waters and river estuaries and again takes up a bottom-dwelling
habit. These inside waters are important nursery grounds for the
young shrimp during the spring and summer.
Since the spawning season of the shrimp extends over a period of
several months — from March or April to August or September — this
means that some young shrimp are arriving in the coastal area through-
out the entire summer. The earliest arrivals reach commercial size
during the month of July and by September practically the entire
catch is made up of young shrimp from the spawning of the preced-
26 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
ing spring. The small shrimp winter on the inside grounds and along
the beaches, but most of the larger shrimp move out into the open
Atlantic or the Gulf to escape the chilly inside waters. Winter fisheries
for these large shrimp now exist, and the so-called jumbo shrimp are
taken in March, April, May, and June. These mature shrimp,
now somewhat more than a year old, are caught throughout the summer
on the offshore fishing grounds, but by September, when a new crop
appears on the outside grounds, the older shrimp make up a very small
percentage of the catch. Presumably the life span of the shrimp is
between one and two years.
Several of the southern States have adopted measures to protect
the young, rapidly growing shrimp on their inshore nursery areas dur-
ing the summer and fall. By waiting until the shrimp have made more
of their growth, fewer individuals would be required to make up the
normal 150-million pound annual catch.
About two-thirds of the entire United States catch of shrimp is taken
in Louisiana. Texas follows with ten percent, while Mississippi, Flor-
ida, and Georgia each contribute 5 or 6 percent, North Carolina and
Alabama 3 percent each, and South Carolina only 1 percent. Almost
the entire catch is taken by small otter-trawl boats which drag bag-
like nets along the bottom. Cast netting, formerly rather important,
still brings in a few shrimp and very small incidental catches may be
made by other gear such as haul seines.
The Oyster (Ostrea virginica)
Southern fishermen make more money from oysters than from any
other item in their catch except shrimp and mullet. The annual yield
of oysters in the States from North Carolina to Texas is some 20 mil-
lion pounds, from which fishermen get slightly more than a million
dollars, actually a higher return per pound than they receive from the
more productive shrimp and mullet fisheries.
Although the production of oysters now is about the same as fifty
years ago considering the southern area as a whole, every State from
North Carolina south shows a decline with the single exception of
Louisiana. In contrast, that State produces four times as many oysters
now as it did in the 1890's, and since its increase about matches the
decline in all other southern coastal States combined, the total output
shows little change.
The oyster that grows along the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts is
the same species that occurs all the way up the Atlantic coast to Cape
Cod, and sparingly beyond that point to Prince Edward Island in
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is one of three species of oysters taken
commercially in the United States, the other two being found on the
Pacific coast, most abundantly in the State of Washington.
In point of size, the Atlantic coast or eastern oyster is midway be-
tween the tiny Olympia oyster of Puget Sound, the meat of which is
about as big as a man's thumb nail, and the enormous Pacific or
Japanese oyster, which has been known to grow a foot or more in
length, although it averages much less. Under the best possible condi-
tions, the eastern oyster might attain a length of 8 or 10 inches, but
actually they are marketed when considerably smaller. Several stand-
ard market sizes of shucked oysters have been established by custom,
the smallest being known as standards, medium size as selects, and the
largest as counts.
Most oysters are now sold as shucked meats, having been removed
FISH AND SHELLFISH 27
from the shells in shucking houses to which they are delivered by the
tongers or dredgers. Depending on their size, there are from 150 to
300 eastern oysters in a gallon. Although the trade in shelled oysters
is on the wane, some oysters are still shipped in the shell, the demand
for this product coming chiefly from hotels and restaurants. Still
others are canned. Practically all of the canned oysters produced in
the United States are prepared in the southern area. The city of
Biloxi, Miss., is now the world center for the canning of oysters, a
title once held by Baltimore. In 1943, Mississippi packed 85,151 cases
and Louisiana 79,614 cases, the remaining 50,090 cases coming from
canneries in the States of North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida,
and Alabama. Normally, some oysters are canned on the Pacific
coast, but there was no canning in this area in 1943 for reasons con-
nected with the war.
Oyster cultivation, which reaches its greatest development in New
England (Carson, 1943) is practiced in the South only in certain
areas. The most important of these is Louisiana, where practically
all oysters come from cultivated and privately leased bottoms. This
practice of cultivation has kept oyster production in Louisiana at a
high level, while other southern States have declined. There are in-
dications that scientific oyster farming may be undertaken in North
Carolina and some additional areas after the war.
Because of the long coastline, oysters grow under quite a variety
of conditions between Hatteras and the southern Texas coast. Many
people are surprised to learn that oysters never grow abundantly on
the bottom of the ocean proper. Instead, they thrive best in enclosed
bays, sounds, and river mouths, where the salinity has been reduced
by the influx of fresh water from rivers and streams. In the more
northern bays such as the Chesapeake or the Delaware, they may
grow some distance offshore in water 30 or more feet deep, but along
much of the southern coast the oyster beds are mainly between low
and high water marks. In the shallow bays and estuaries of the Gulf
coast, the natural oyster beds are seldom under more than 2 or 3 feet
of water. In southern Florida, oysters sometimes grow attached to
the aerial roots of the mangrove trees, submerged only by the high
tide, and on the Gulf coast they sometimes grow on the grass at the
edges of the marshes, in places where only the highest tides reach.
On the Gulf coast the spawning season of the oyster is a very long
one, beginning in March and continuing into November. So prolific
is the oyster that a female may produce from 15 million to 114 million
eggs at one spawning, or several hundred million in a summer. The
eggs and sperms, discharged into the water, unite by chance and the
fertilized egg produces a free-swimming larva in only 5 to 10 hours.
The young oyster swims about actively, propelling itself by the vibra-
tion of minute, hairlike cilia. For about two weeks it is a creature
of the tides and currents, and may travel far from the place where
spawning took place. At the end of this period it is a fully developed
larva, about one seventy-fifth of an inch in diameter, and is now ready
to become transformed into the juvenile form, which resembles the adult
in general appearance. Before it can do this, it must give up its free-
dom of motion by attaching itself firmly (by means of a cementlike
substance which it secretes) to a rock, shell, or other hard object. Once
attached, an oyster is never able to move about again of its own accord,
although oysters growing in soft mud may shift their position by brisk
opening and closing of the shells.
The act of setting or striking, as the attachment of the larval oyster
28 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
is called, is full of danger, for even a few grains of drifting silt are
enough to smother the tiny creature, and any larvae that come down
on a surface covered with algae or other marine growths are unable
to attach themselves and quickly die. Those which make a successful
landing on a clean, hard surface soon change from the larval form into
miniatures of the adult oyster, and in two weeks after setting — at the
age of about four weeks — have shells a quarter of an inch long. Oysters
from this size to two inches long are known as "seed oysters." In south-
ern waters, where the water ordinarily is^warm enough for oysters to
grow and feed during the whole year, they reach market size in two to
three years. About four years are required in Long Island Sound, where
the cold winters cause them to go into a state resembling hibernation.
On the uncultivated reefs of the South are found many long, narrow,
and irregularly shaped oysters which are known as coon oysters, a name
said to have been given them because raccoons feed on them. These
oysters are of little market value because the meats are small and
poorly shaped. The coon oyster is the product of two conditions com-
monly found along southern coasts — soft, muddy bottoms and excessive
crowding of oysters in a narrow zone along the shore. Single oysters
tend to sink vertically into the mud so that the shell stands on one end
and then to grow into long, narrow, sharp-edged specimens. Other
oysters crowd in closely around it, attach to its shells, and further in-
crease the distortion of shape. Small coon oysters broken apart and
planted on firm bottom change their form and develop into the typical
pear-like shape of a good market oyster. Galtsoff (1930) points out
that the coon oyster is not a geographic race but a product of its en-
vironment, and says that in earlier days typical "coon oysters" existed
in Long Island Sound, for they have been discovered in dredgings at
the mouth of the Housatonic River.
During their comparatively short lives oysters face many dangers.
On the Gulf coast, especially, flood waters from the rivers or the break-
ing of levees may reduce the salinity of the water over the oyster beds
so greatly that large numbers die. Heavy storms may bury the beds
under sand or dislodge clusters of oysters and throw them on the beach.
Gales have sometimes been known to establish new beds by shifting
oysters to areas where none had grown before. Besides storms and
floods, oysters also have many natural enemies. Clams, conchs, and
oyster drills which bore into their shells, and a peculiar sponge of a
bright yellow color which bores into the shell and causes it to dissolve
away are the most important of these enemies in the South.
In its diet, the oyster is largely vegetarian. Most of its food con-
sists of the minute, one-celled plants called diatoms which are carried
to its mouth in the water which the oyster draws through its gills. The
diatoms, like other marine plants, are nourished by the various minerals
in the sea-water, and because of its diet the oyster itself is an excellent
source of copper, iron, iodine, and other minerals essential in human
nutrition. It also contains most of the essential vitamins, protein of
high nutritive value, and starch in the easily digested form known as
glycogen.
Blue Crab (Callinectes sapidus)
The common blue crab of the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts is taken
all along the eastern seaboard from New York to Texas. While more
blue crabs have always come from the Chesapeake Bay than from any
other section, the yield from more southern areas has been growing
steadily. The State of Louisiana now produces almost half as many
FISH AND SHELLFISH
29
crabs as are taken in the Chesapeake. Compared with Louisiana's 14
million pounds, North and South Carolina produce about 4 million
each, Florida about 6 million, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi 1 to
2 million each, and Texas only about 250,000 pounds.
Unlike its relative, the shrimp, the blue crab is only occasionally
found in the open sea but prefers bays, sounds, and the mouths of rivers,
where it lives in waters ranging from true ocean saltiness to brackish
or even fresh. The so-called sweet-water crabs of the Atchafalaya
River are taken in fresh water 25 miles from its mouth, and crabs are
common in the Newport River of North Carolina. However, the chief
commercial fisheries are in the bays and sounds, where the crabs are
most numerous.
Figure 11.— The blue crab of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts is one of the best known crustaceans
in the world.
Because the Chesapeake fishery for crabs has been longest estab-
lished and also because the bay apparently provides ideal surround-
ings for their propagation, the habits and life history of crabs are better
known in the Chesapeake than anywhere else. The general features are
probably similar in all sections, however.
Each year between the first of June and the end of August, in the
Chesapeake Bay, a new generation of crabs is produced. At this sea-
son the female extrudes the tiny eggs, each about 1/100 inch in di-
ameter, and these together form a large yellowish mass known as the
"sponge" and remain attached to the female crab. As the young
develop within the eggs the sponge becomes darker. They hatch in
about 15 days. Each baby crab is about 1/25 of an inch long, is shaped
somewhat like a question mark, and has seven pairs of appendages and
a long tail. At this stage it is konwn as a "zoea." As it grows the
zoea sheds its shell several times. After the fifth or sixth shedding
it changes into a form that is more truly crablike. This is the "mega-
lops." Probably the first molt of the megalops changes the developing
youngster into the true crab form, but it is decidedly a miniature crab,
30 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
only 1/8 inch across. This stage is reached about one month after
hatching.
After the megalops stage the crab molts about 15 times before reach-
ing maturity, at first every 6 days and then after gradually lengthen-
ing periods up to about 25 days between final molts. Ordinarily the
crab gains about one-third in size with every molt. Crabs reach their
full growth and maturity, and cease to molt, during their second sum-
mer, when 12 to 14 months old.
For the female crab, mating occurs only once in her life — immediately
after the last molt, when she is still in the soft-shelled condition. In
the Chesapeake Bay this is usually during the last of July or August.
The sperm received from the male at this time is retained by the fe-
male and used to fertilize such successive batches of eggs as she may
lay during the remainder of her life. Usually the first spawning takes
place when the female is about 2 years old, or during the summer fol-
lowing mating. It is believed that some females live over another
winter and deposit more eggs when 3 years old, but that few or none
live longer than this. The life span of the male is probably about the
same length.
In the Chesapeake most of the young crabs hatched in the lower
part of the bay soon begin a northward migration. Cold weather inter-
rupts this journey and they settle to the bottom and cease to feed and
also to grow until conditions are more to their liking. In the spring
their migration is resumed, growth proceeds, and finally they reach
Maryland waters as nearly mature crabs. It follows that the mating
of the majority of the blue crabs of the bay takes place in Maryland.
After mating the females return to the lower bay, but most of the
males remain behind, spending the winter in deep holes or in creeks
and rivers. Only about a fifth of the crabs taken in the lower part of
the bay during the winter are males. Nearly all the sponge-bearing
crabs are found in Virginia waters.
Many people have the mistaken impression that the so-called "soft
crab" is a distinct species. The term refers to any crab which has
shed its old shell, before the new shell has hardened. As the soft-
shelled crab is considered especially good eating, large numbers of young-
crabs are sought in the spring and early summer while they are still
molting.
A newly molted crab is particularly helpless to defend itself or even
to escape by swimming. The actual casting of the shell requires only
a few minutes if all goes well — up to an hour if the crab is disturbed
or has suffered recent injury. In a series of convulsive movements,
the crab withdraws its five pairs of legs from the old encasements,
having greatest difficulty with the large claws, and backs out of the shell.
Under the old shell the skin is soft and wrinkled and the animal is
flabby and helpless. Ordinarily the crab selects some sheltered place
to undergo the molt, for during the 12 hours until the new shell hardens
it is in imminent danger of being set upon by large fish or even by its
own kind, or of being scooped up in a crabber's dip net.
Crabs have the curious ability to cast off one or more of their legs
and will use this habit to escape if caught and held by one leg. A sud-
den drop in temperature may sometimes cause one or several legs to
be snapped off. The break always occurs across one of the joints, which
protects the crab from the danger of bleeding to death. Ordinarily, the
legs are regenerated. As many as three or four replacements of the
same appendage are possible. In the regenerative process, three or
four molts are sufficient to provide a new, full-size limb.
FISH AND SHELLFISH 31
On the Gulf coast the heaviest production falls in the months of
May, June, July, and August. Some crabs are sold whole as taken
from the water, in which case they should be alive when purchased,
whether in the hard or soft shelled condition. Many people, however,
prefer to buy the meat ready for use, and so most of the crabs caught
on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts go to the packing houses where they
are cooked and the meat removed and packed in convenient containers.
Except for one cannery in South Carolina and two in Louisiana, the
canning of crabs is confined to the Pacific coast, where a different
species is taken, and to a small canning industry for the rock crab
in New England.
At the present time the most important markets for fresh crab are
the cities of the Atlantic seaboard, which have long been familiar with
this perishable product and know how to give it the special handling it
requires. On the other hand, few mid-western cities know the blue
crab as well, and as a result the interior markets to which the Gulf
coast product could most profitably be shipped have not been fully
developed. This lack of near-by markets for fresh crab has been an
important factor in holding back the devolpment of a large fishery in
the Gulf. Whether it could ever become as large as the Chesapeake
fishery, however, is something that cannot be predicted until the crab
populations of the region are investigated by a proper biological study.
Other Fish and Shellfish
The menhaden is one of the most interesting fishes on the Atlan-
tic seaboard. It supports one of the oldest fisheries in America, ranks
second in volume of production a<mong all United States fishes, and
is caught in greater quantity on the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts
than all other fin fishes combined. Despite its importance, it is one
of the least known fishes in our waters, for few people have ever
heard of it. The explanation of this surprising situation is simple.
Although almost every person in the United States has at some time
been indebted to the menhaden for something he eats, wears, or uses,
the fish has seldom been used extensively as food and so has not become
familiar to the public. It is included in this bulletin on food fishes
for two reasons: the recent development of canned menhaden which
may make this product generally available after the war, and the fact
that meal and oil derived from menhaden are so important to our live-
stock and poultry industries that this fish is only one step removed
from the ham, fried chicken, and eggs on all our tables.
Although the fact is seldom recognized, several species of menhaden
are found in United States waters, the most important one on the Atlan-
tic coast being Brevoortia tyrannus. The menhadens occur all the way
from Nova Scotia to Florida, and southward to Brazil, but are seldom
taken north of Cape Cod, and only small and scattered fisheries are
carried on in the Gulf of Mexico. In the South Atlantic region the most
important fisheries are located in North Carolina and Florida, the chief
menhaden center being the town of Beaufort, N. C. The catch for
the entire area amounts to about 250,000,000 pounds, or 68 percent of
the catch of all species of fish, and 43 percent of the catch of all fish
and shellfish combined. The total United States catch of menhaden
is about 600,000,000 pounds.
Although enterprising Yankees canned menhaden as sardines a cen-
tury ago, there had been little use of this fish as food — except by fisher-
men or other people in fishing communities — until a small canning indus-
32
CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
try was developed at Fernandina, Fla., during the war. Practically
the entire output of this enterprise has been sent to Great Britain
through Lend-Lease channels, but some canning has also been done at
Reedville, Va., and this product has found its way into the grocery
stores of nearby States. In all probability, canned menhaden will be-
come familiar to a much larger public after the war when large-scale
canning becomes feasible.
Being members of the herring family, the menhadens resemble the
more familiar shad and the river herrings or alewives in appearance,
and general characteristics. Like these relatives, they have a rich
and oily flesh. Most of the oil is removed during the canning process
and only the large, meaty cuts from the back region are packed.
Figure 12.— The menhaden, a member of the herring family, swims in large schools at the
surface of the sea.
The food of menhaden consists entirely of the minute surface life
of the sea which they strain from the water by means of a sieve-like
structure in the back of the mouth. Large schools of feeding menhaden
give the water a brassy tinge because of the strong yellow luster of
their flanks, and this color helps fishermen to locate the schools.
For several generations the manufacture of meal and oil has over-
shadowed all other uses for menhaden. One third of all the fish meals
and a quarter of the marine animal oils produced in the United States
are products of the menhaden industry. The meals are fed to hogs
and poultry to provide the indispensable animal protein in their diet;
the oils are used in preparing fortified vitamin feeding oils for poultry.
The industrial uses of menhaden oil are many. It is a constituent of
many paints, varnishes, insect sprays, printing inks, and soap. The
oil is used also as a lubricant of machinery, in aluminum casting, and
in leather tanning.
The shad, Alosa sapidissima, was formerly one of the most impor-
tant food fishes of the South Atlantic coast, but the catch has now
declined to only about a tenth of the 10,000,000-pound level at the
turn of the century. Despite its reduced importance, however, it still
brings the fishermen of Georgia a larger income than any other fin
fish, and in South Carolina it is second in value only to the mullet.
North Carolina, with an annual catch of about 800,000 pounds, ranks
fourth among the States of the Atlantic seaboard in the production
of shad.
Like the salmon, the shad is a fish that spends most of its time in
the ocean but runs into coastal rivers to spawn above tidewater. The
FISH AND SHELLFISH 33
young are hatched in fresh water and at the end of their first sum-
mer drop down stream and enter the ocean. They are not seen after
they leave the streams until they return, three or four years later, as
mature adults.
The shad is a seasonal fish all along the coast, and is caught earlier
in Florida than anywhere else. The runs of shad begin there in Decem-
ber, and the first shad to reach northern markets come from Florida.
The largest catches in that State are made in the St. Johns River, and
at a considerable distance above its mouth. The shad runs in North
Carolina begin in February.
The shad is the largest and most prized member of the herring family,
and is generally regarded as one of the best food fishes of the Atlantic
coast. In the 1870's it was transplanted to the Pacific coast, where it
does not occur naturally, and it took hold so well in its new surround-
ings that it now occurs from California to southeastern Alaska, and
shipments are regularly made from the Pacific coast to eastern markets.
The decline in its abundance on the Atlantic coast is the result of ex-
8,105
Figure 13.— The shad may again be abundant in many southern rivers if proper conservation
measures are applied.
cessive fishing and, in some waters, to pollution or to dams without
adequate fishways. The fact that a complete recovery of the much
depleted Hudson River runs has been brought about by careful regula-
tion of the catch indicates that in the future, if proper management prac-
tices are followed, we may have more shad all along the Atlantic
seaboard.
Shad is ordinarily sold fresh, although some is frozen in the Middle
Atlantic area. Market sizes are from 1% to 8 pounds. It is usually
sold whole, and a baked, stuffed shad is considered one of the finest
seafood dishes. A very choice market form, to be recommended for
the ease of preparation, is boned shad fillets.
The common pompano, Trachinotus carolinus, is one of the
choicest of all food fishes although the supply, unfortunately, is not
large. The annual catch is only a little more than half a million
pounds, almost all of which is taken in Florida. Because the pompano
is so highly regarded for the rich, yet peculiarly delicate, flavor of its
flesh, fishermen receive several times as much for it, per pound, as they
do for most other fishes. The height of the pompano season is from
late January to April. The average market size is about 1 to l1/^
34
CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
pounds. Most of the catch is marketed fresh, and large shipments are
made to northern markets.
Adult pompanos are found from Virginia to Brazil and the young
stray as far north as Cape Cod. Except for the wanderings of the
young, this fish does not seem to migrate extensively.
The pompano is a member of the family Carangidae, which includes
the amberfish, the jacks, and the lookdown fish. It is a thin fish with
a deeply forked tail and is covered with small scales with a blue, silvery,
or golden luster. It is toothless in the adult stage, but despite this
fact feeds on small mollusks and crustaceans. Since it seldom takes
the hook, it is not a game species.
Not a great deal is known of its life history. It seems to prefer
sandy bottom near shore where it feeds. Schools of pompano are
abundant about inlets, where they play in and out with the tides. In
North Carolina small ones, from half an inch to two inches long, are
often seen in the surf on the outer beaches, the waves repeatedly cast-
ing them out on the wet sand, from which they jump back into the
next breaker.
Figure 14.— Of the three species that occur on the Atlantic coast, only the common pompano,
shown here, is an important food fish.
The snook, robalo, or sergeant fish, Centropomus undecimalis,
is a common fish of the southwest coast of Florida, where it supports
a small commercial fishery and is also one of the most important sport
fishes of the region. It also occurs on the coast of Texas and south-
ward through the West Indies. In the United States it is the only well
known representative of its family, a group of tropical fishes found
on both coasts of America.
In Florida the snook is taken by several different kinds of gear, of
which hand lines are the most important. Large fish often swim close
inshore, where most of the fishing is done. The snook also ascends
streams, but seldom goes above the limits of brackish water.
The snook is .a good food fish, with an excellent flavor and a white
and flaky meat. The annual catch runs to about half a million pounds.
The average size is 3 pounds, though a large snook may weigh as much
FISH AND SHELLFISH 35
as 30. The larger fish are marketed as steaks, and are best baked or
broiled.
Figure 15.— Called Gulf pike, sergeant fish, brochet de mer, and snook, this is by any name
an excellent market fish and a favorite of sportsmen.
The grunts make up a large family of fishes which are related to
the snappers and are found chiefly in tropical waters. Many of them
are important food fishes wherever they are locally abundant. One of
the best known along the South Atlantic coast is the pigfish, Ortho-
pristes chrysopterus. Fishermen often take it in haul seines, for it is
common on sandy shores. Averaging about half a pound — although
some weigh as much as two pounds — the pigfish falls in the panfish cate-
gory and is considered very good eating.
Several grunts of the genus Haemulon are among the staple food
fishes of the Key West area, where, according to the colloquial expres-
sion, when all other food supplies fail the natives fall back on "grits
and grunts." The white and yellow grunts, Haemulon plumieri and
H. sciurus, are the most abundant there.
Grunts are so named because they are able to produce as audible
sound, although scientists disagree as to just how this is done. Some
believe it is by, scraping the pharyngeal teeth against the gill arches,
with the air bladder acting as a resonator.
Grunts are often seen in shallow water and about docks, where they
nose into cracks and crevices in search of food. Schools of them lie
rather quietly during the day, but break up and scatter to feed at night.
Some species of grunts are remarkable in having the inside of the
mouth colored a brilliant red. Just what purpose this color serves is
uncertain, but two fish in pugnacious mood will sometimes rush at each
other with their mouths wide open and the brilliant interiors fully
displayed.
The sheepshead, Archosargus probatocephalus, of the Atlantic and
Gulf coasts might be seen anywhere from Texas to the Bay of Fundy,
but it is abundant only in the South and the center of the commercial
fishery is on the west coast of Florida. The annual commercial catch
now amounts to half a million pounds or more, although formerly it was
much larger. As a member of the porgy family the sheepshead is closely
related to the familiar scup or porgy that is an important commercial
fish northward from Virginia. It is not to be confused with the fresh-
water sheepshead, which is a member of the drum or croaker family.
The sheepshead is often taken about wharves, breakwaters, and
sunken wrecks where it finds abundant food. It is fond of crabs, oysters,
36
CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
and other shellfish which it crushes easily in its strong teeth. In inlets,
it moves in and out with the tides and in the South does not seem to
migrate extensively. During the spawning season, which occurs in the
spring, the sheepshead assemble in schools and move into shallow water
to deposit the eggs.
The largest sheepshead on record weighed about 20 pounds but the
Figure 16.— The pigfish is one of the commonest food fishes along South Atlantic shores.
average size is, of course, much less. The larger fish may be filleted,
the smaller sold whole. The meat is white, tender, and pleasantly
flavored.
A related species, the pinfish Lagodon rhomboides, is a food fish of
some importance in Florida and North Carolina.
Figure 17.— Salt-water anglers as well as commercial fishermen take the sheepshead, a fish
that prefers warm southern waters.
FISH AND SHELLFISH 37'
The blue runner or hardtail, Caranx crysos, has always been
esteemed as a food fish on the Gulf coast, where it seems to be most
abundant, but it has never been taken in large quantities, the catch
usually falling well below a million pounds. Recently, there has been
some increase in the production of this fish and in 1942 some 700,000
pounds were taken on the east coast of Florida, in addition to the Gulf
coast catch. Too little is known about the biology of this fish to predict
how large a fishery it could support, but it seems likely it could provide
a considerably larger poundage than is now being taken.
Like the pompano, the blue runner is a member of the family Carangi-
dae, all of which are active swimmers inhabiting warm seas. Although
found all the way from Cape Cod to Brazil, the blue runner is taken
Figure 18. — The blue runner is one of the under-utilized species of the South.
commercially only in Florida and Alabama. It has many different
common names: horse crevalle in North Carolina, jurel, skipjack, and
jack-fish in Florida.
In the vicinity of Pensacola, the migratory schools of the blue runner
appear in April, are most numerous in May. Along the southern coast
of Florida they are abundant in winter. They follow schools of small
fish, sometimes leaping out of the water in pursuit of them. They, in
their turn, are chased by sharks and porpoises, and are sometimes driven
ashore in numbers.
The blue runner is a slim bodied fish, rather more green than blue
above, golden yellow or silvery below. It attains a length of 20 inches
and a weight of 4 pounds. Most of the catch is taken in haul seines,
which are operated in shallow water along the shore.
The crevalle or common jack, Caranx hippos, a close relative of
the blue runner and the pompano, is taken in quantities of about a
quarter of a million pounds on the west coast of Florida, but nowhere
else in important numbers. This is the most abundant of the various
species of jacks or runners that are found about Key West. It is a good
food fish, commanding a ready sale in the markets. Most of the com-
mercial catch is taken in gill nets, but the crevalle may also be taken
by trolling and is of some interest to anglers. The average weight is
about a pound, although it not infrequently runs to 10 pounds and the
record weight is about 20. Although it is found throughout the year, it
is most common during the winter months.
38
CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
Figure 19.— The crevalle, which occurs on the eastern seaboard as far north as Massachusetts,
has a number of common names, such as albacore, horse mackerel, cavally, and jack.
The flounders are excellent food fishes, with white, flaky, and del-
icately flavored meat, but the total catch in the south amounts to only
about a million pounds by commercial fishermen. While some are taken
in each of the coastal States, the largest catches are made in North
Carolina, Florida, and Texas.
Three kinds of flounders are taken along the South Atlantic and Gulf
coasts, although one of them is so small that it has little commercial
importance. These are the summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus,
found on the Atlantic coast as far south as the northern part of Florida ;
the southern flounder, P. lethostigmus, common on both South Atlantic
and Gulf coasts ; and the small flounder referred to above, P. albiguttus,
which also occurs on both Atlantic and Gulf coasts. For the market no
distinction of species usually is made, all species being lumped together
as flounders. For those who wish to tell one flounder from another the
following suggestions may be helpful. In southern Florida or anywhere
on the Gulf coast the problem is simple, for only two species occur —
lethostigmus and albiguttus. Lethostigmus is uniformly dark colored
on the upper surface, while albiguttus has a number of conspicuous spots,
each dark with a white ring around it. From North Carolina to northern
Florida the identification is a little more difficult because three species
figure 20.-Tbe southern flounder, found from Chesapeake Bay to Texas, is the common
market flounder on the Gulf coast.
FISH AND SHELLFISH 39
are concerned. However, lethostigmus is still easy to recognize because
it lacks spots. As between dentatus and albiguttus, both of which bear
the ringed spots, remember that albiguttus is small and that its spots are
fewer — usually three placed in a rough triangle plus several accessory
spots, compared with six major and many accessory spots in dentatus.
To be sure of his identification of these two species, however, the biologist
counts the gill rakers and fin rays.
All flounders have flat, compressed bodies and a peculiar habit of lying
on their sides. They are not born with this habit but acquire it early in
life. Several amazing structural changes accompany the transformation,
most important of which is the fact that the eye on the under side moves
across the forehead and comes to lie beside the other on the uppermost
side of the fish. In this way the flounder is saved the inconvenience of
continuously looking into the mud with one eye. Some flounders
habitually lie on the left side, others on the right. The southern flounder,
for example, lies on its right side. Ordinarily, the under side becomes
uniformly light in color, the upper side uniformly dark.
Flounders are predatory and their diet consists in large part of other
fishes, although they also eat shrimps, crabs, and other aquatic animals.
Often they lie partly buried in the sand with only the eyes exposed.
Their air of sluggishness is most deceptive, however, for when a fish
passes by they dart up with surprising rapidity and seize it. People who
have kept flounders in laboratory tanks say that they will strike with
great force at a finger and can inflict a painful wound.
About .Beaufort, N. C, Hildebrand and Cable (1930) found very
young flounders off Beaufort Inlet much more often than inside the
harbor, from which they inferred that most or all of the spawning takes
place at sea. The principal spawning season in that area seems to be
November and December. The young soon move into the inside waters,
where, like the adults, they live on or near the bottom.
Sharks as food are becoming a regularly occurring item in such United
States markets as can obtain a steady supply. Although they have a
long and honorable history of utilization in other countries, sharks had
been largely neglected by the American public as food until wartime
shortages prompted a search for new sources of protein foods. A thriv-
ing fishery for sharks already existed — especially on the Pacific coast
?nd in North Carolina and Florida in the east — but only the vitamin-
rich livers and the hides were saved, while millions of pounds of meat
were being discarded at sea. The first experimental shipments of shark
meat were so well received that a brisk market has now grown up, and
the supply for consumers is limited only by the ability of fishermen to
catch and process the sharks. The meat is placed on the market chiefly
in the form of frozen steaks or fillets. The present heavy demand sug-
gests that shark meat will continue popular after the war, when formerly
plentiful foods have been restored to our tables.
The chief centers of shark fishing on the Atlantic coast are Morehead
City in North Carolina and Mayport, Salerno, Cortez, and Key West in
Florida. Many different species are taken — probably fifteen to twenty
— with the leopard, dusky, brown, sand, hammerhead, and nurse sharks
being among the most important. Gear used by Florida shark fishermen
resembles the long trawl lines still used to some extent in New England
for cod, except that chains are substituted for the lower part of the line
because of the sharp teeth and the strength of many of the sharks.
Sharks are classified by zoologists as fishes, but are distinguished from
the bony fishes by the fact that the skeleton is not ossified, by the
presence of a series of gill slits along the side of the head, and by other
40
CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
less conspicuous anatomical features. The general habits of sharks are
very similar to those of most of the larger, predatory bony fishes. Their
food consists largely of crabs, lobsters, small fishes, and mollusks. One
of the largest of all sharks, the basking shark, lives on the minute
surface life of the sea which it strains through its gills.
Many kinds of sharks differ from most bony fishes in an interesting
respect — they bring forth their young alive. These sharks produce eggs
with well developed shells like other fishes, the difference being that the
eggs hatch within the body of the mother, instead of first being expelled.
However, while the cod, for example, produces millions of eggs, the shark
may give "birth" to only a dozen or so young. This great difference in
Figure 21.— The spiny lobster of Florida, also called the sea crayfish or rock lobster, is a
handsome crustacean mottled with blue, rich yellow, and brown and studded with
numerous spines.
FISH AND SHELLFISH 41
fertility is probably compensated in Nature's scheme by a higher sur-
vival rate. The young sharks, at birth, are of good size, active, and
obviously ready to take up an independent existence.
The spiny lobster of Florida, Panulirus argus, is not closely related to
the New England lobster, although people sometimes confuse the two.
One of the chief differences is the fact that the spiny lobster lacks the
giant claws that are a characteristic feature of the New England lobster
and provide a considerable quantity of choice meat. All the meat of
the spiny lobster comes from the flexible abdomen or "tail." The frozen
lobster tails, still encased in their shells of mottled green and brown, are
the common market form.
Present catches of the spiny lobster amount to slightly less than half
a million pounds, taken chiefly on the Florida Reef from Miami to Dry
Tortugas. Although this species occurs as far north as Beaufort, N. C,
United States fishermen seldom take it outside the State of Florida.
The best fishing grounds are along the southern shores of the reefs and
keys. A related form is found on the Pacific coast, south of Point
Conception.
The average market size of the Florida spiny lobster is about 9 to 10
inches, exclusive of the long antennae. The largest specimen of which
the Fish and Wildlife Service has authentic record measured over 17
inches and weighed 8 pounds.
Most of the catch is made at night in pots which the lobsters enter as
they crawl about to feed, for they are nocturnal prowlers. During the
day they lie hidden under rock ledges or among sponges, where they may
be detected in clear water by the protruding antennae. Coral reefs,
rocky bottoms, and other grounds which provide good cover are their
favorite haunts.
The hard-shell clam, Venus mercenaria, occurs along the shores of
the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts all the way from North Carolina to
Texas, but only the States of Florida and North Carolina have important
clam fisheries. Florida produces about 700,000' pounds and North
Carolina 500,000.
The southern hard-shell clam is the same species as the well known
quahog of New England and in the South is sometimes called the
"round clam" or "little neck clam." On the Gulf coast of Florida the
clams grow so much larger than along the South Atlantic coast that
they are considered a distinct sub-species, known as Venus mercenaria
mortoni. The shells of the Florida clams may be 5% to 6 inches long
and the clam may weigh several pounds.
Probably the largest clam bed in the United States occurs off the Gulf
coast of Florida, in the region of the Ten Thousand Islands. It is some
40 miles long and at its widest parts extends out into the Gulf a distance
of about 5 miles. The clams are distributed over about 150 square
miles of bottom, occurring, as might be expected, more thickly in some
places than in others.
In the Florida clam fishery two kinds of gear are used, both of which
apparently are unique in the United States. The bulk of the catch is
taken by a dredge, which in general appearance resembles a houseboat.
The digging apparatus picks up the clams on its curved teeth and de-
posits them on a moving wooden escalator or conveyor which, in turn,
carries the clams past two or three men who pick out the live clams.
Dead clams, shells, and debris are automatically discarded when the
conveyor passes under water again. The dredge is at one end of a 1,200
foot cable which is attached to an 800-pound anchor. It moves along
42 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
slowly by taking up the cable. When a run is completed the cable is
released and the dredge drifts back with the wind and tide. Each run
of the dredge follows a course like the radius of a circle, with the anchor
at the center.
Besides the dredge, some small boats are operated. Clam diggers in
these boats use a long-handled probe which bears four prongs of flexible
steel. The probe is thrust into the bottom repeatedly until a clam is
felt, then an additional thrust secures the clam between the prongs so
that it may be drawn out.
All of the boats now working the clam bed are operated in connection
with a local cannery, where the entire catch is processed. In North
Carolina another clam cannery is operated, but part of the catch in
that State is sold fresh.
Besides the hard clam, one other species — the small coquina clam — ■
is marketed in Florida for use in broths and chowders, but the annual
production is only about 15,000 pounds.
The bay scallop, Pecten irradians, is taken commercially in only
two areas on the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts — in Carteret County,
N. C, and on the Gulf coast of Florida, principally about Fort Myers,
Tampa, and Apalachicola.
At the present time, the Florida production is much the larger,
amounting to about 130,000 pounds, compared with approximately 35,000
in North Carolina. The small quantity of scallops now taken in North
Carolina is the result of the strange disappearance, about ten years ago,
of a marine plant known as eelgrass, in which the young scallops find
necessary protection. When the eelgrass was killed out by an unex-
plained disease which struck suddenly over a wide area along the
Atlantic coast, the scallop population in the affected areas was virtually
wiped out, so close is the ecological dependence of the mollusk on the
sheltering vegetation. The blow dealt the scallop fishery of North Caro-
lina is revealed in the following figures: in 1927 the catch was 835,000
pounds ; in 1940, 34,000 pounds. Eelgrass does not grow south of Bogue
Sound in North Carolina, hence the Gulf coast fishery was not affected.
It has, however, shown some decline due to other causes, probably
economic.
Like oysters and clams, scallops have two shells — hence are called
"bivalves" — but they differ considerably in their habits from these
sedentary relatives. Scallops swim about actively by rapidly opening
and closing the shells, the forcible closing expelling a jet of water which
furnishes the means of propulsion. A large muscle controls the shell
movements, and this muscle (sometimes called the "eye") is the only
part of the scallop that is eaten. Europeans eat the entire scallop, just
as whole oysters and clams are eaten, but Americans have not yet
learned to eat anything but the excellently flavored muscle.
FISH AND SHELLFISH 43
APPENDIX
The Nutritive Value of Fish and Shellfish
Most people eat fish because they enjoy their varied flavors and their
adaptability to many different methods of preparation. There are
further benefits from eating aquatic food, however, for fish are good
natural sources of calcium, phosphorus, iron, and copper, and provide
protein of unexcelled quality. Some species also furnish vitamins in
appreciable quantities and sea fish are rich in iodine.
Fish are an important source of proteins, a type of food which must
be included in the diet to provide the elements needed to grow and
repair worn-out body tissues. Some proteins are complete in that they
supply all of the elements needed; others are incomplete and must be
supplemented with other protein foods if the body is to remain in normal
health. Fish proteins, like those in beef, pork, and other meats, are
complete in themselves and proteins of this type should supply about
one-third of the daily protein requirement.
Fish are an excellent source of most of the minerals which the body
needs to develop properly and perform its functions. Calcium and
phosphorus (without which proper development of bones and teeth is
impossible) occur in fish fillets in about the same quantities as in beef
round. Marine fishes are especially rich sources of iodine, containing
50 to 200 times as much of this essential element as any other food.
Oysters, shrimp, and crabmeat, compared with milk, provide half as
much calcium, five times as much magnesium, and slightly more phos-
phorus. Iron and copper, which build up the hemoglobin content of
the blood and prevent or remedy nutritional anemia, are easily obtained
by eating most fish. Oysters and shrimp are the best known sources of
these two minerals.
Although fish-liver oils have long been recognized as first-class sources
of vitamins A and D, it is less widely known that the flesh of fish is also
a source of several vitamins. On the average, daily vitamin require-
ments could be obtained from ordinary serving portions of fish to the
following extent: vitamin A, 10 percent; vitamin D, more than adequate
amounts; thiamin (vitamin Bi), 15 percent; riboflavin (vitamin B2), and
nicotinic acid (another element of the vitamin B complex), 70 percent.
General Guides for Selecting and Preparing Fish
How to buy. — Insist upon freshness. A fresh fish may be recognized
by the following: firm and elastic flesh, scales that cling to the skin in
most species, reddish gills free from disagreeable odor, eyes bright and
full, not sunken. In selecting shellfish like clams and oysters, be sure
that the shells are tightly shut, indicating that the animals are alive,
unless you prefer to buy the meat separately as shucked shellfish. Crabs
and lobsters should be bought alive or as cooked meat. However, un-
cooked shrimp may be bought in the shell provided it feels firm to the
touch. Cooked shrimp is sold either with or without the shell, with the
heads already removed.
When to buy. — In general, the fish of any species are of highest food
quality when most abundant, for at these periods fishermen are making
their catches in the shortest time and shipping them promptly. Usually,
but not always, fish are cheapest when most abundant.
Common market forms. — Fresh (refrigerated) fish and completely
frozen fish should be equally good if the freezing is done by the modern
44 CONSERVATION BULLETIN 3 7
methods now well known to the industry. Both are marketed in a
variety of convenient forms, as follows:
Whole or round fish are those marketed in the form in which they
come from the water, and are of three kinds: fish that keep as well or
better without dressing, small fishes, or the small sizes of larger species.
Before cooking, whole or round fish are eviscerated, and in all but the
very small sizes, the heads, scales, and sometimes the fins are removed.
Drawn fish are those marketed with only the entrails removed. To
prepare these fish for cooking, the heads, scales, and (if desired) the
fins are removed, and the fish may be split or cut into serving portions
if too large to be cooked whole.
Dressed fish have had the head and entrails removed and the tail and
fins may be cut off. If dressed fish are large, they may be cut into pieces
in preparation for cooking. Very large dressed fish are sometimes
marketed in pieces.
Steaks are slices (usually about half an inch thick) cut across a large
dressed fish.
Fillets are meaty slices cut lengthwise from the sides of the fish.
Fillets contain no bones or other waste. Their weight varies with the
size of the fish from which they are cut.
Stocks are crosswise or lengthwise cuts of fillets.
Canned fish. — Besides the universally familiar canned salmon, tuna,
and sardines, many kinds of fish are canned for use in main dishes,
salads, and appetizers. For the duration of the war, however, the
amount of canned fish available for civilians will be considerably less
than normal.
Salt or Sm,oked fish. — Tasty variations in the menu are provided by
salt or smoked fish. Salt fish ordinarily requires one-half to several
hours' soaking before further preparation; while smoked fish usually is
ready to eat as it is, or may be heated.
Fat content of fish. — For best results in preparing a fresh fish, it is
always desirable to know whether it is fat or lean. Fat fish are especially
suitable for baking, and may also be broiled, Avhile lean fish are best
adapted to steaming, boiling, and frying. Medium-fat fish are prepared
like the lean, or may be dressed with strips of salt pork or bacon and
baked. Most cook books classify fish as follows:
Fat fish are those containing more than 5 percent fat. Examples are
mullet, Spanish mackerel, and pompano.
Lean fish are those containing less than 5 percent fat. Examples are
red snapper, sea trout, and groupers.
Sauces and garnishes. — The attractiveness of almost any dish con-
sisting of fish will be increased greatly by the use of sauces that subtly
enhance or complement the flavor. Any good cook book contains ex-
cellent suggestions as to the choice and preparation of such sauces.2
Fresh and colorful garnishes also do much to create a dish as pleasing to
the eye as to the palate, thereby whetting the appetite and helping to
make the serving of fish a pleasurable and often repeated experience.
2 Sauces for seafoods. Fishery Leaflet 53. Mimeographed, 4 pages, may be obtained on request
from the Fish and Wildlife Service. Chicago 54, 111
FISH AND SHELLFISH 45
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Breder, Charles M., Jr. Field book of marine fishes of the Atlantic coast. 332
pp., illus., 1929.
Carson, Rachel L. Food from the sea : Fish and shellfish of New England. U. S.
Fish and Wildlife Service Conservation Bulletin No. 33. 74 pp., illus., 1943.
Churchill, E. P., Jr. Life history of the blue crab. Bulletin, U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries, Vol. XXXVI, pp., 91-128, illus., 1917-18.
The oyster and the oyster industry of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Appendix
VIII, Report, U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries for 1919. 51 pp., illus., 1921.
Galtsoff, Paul S., and R. H. Luce. Oyster investigations in Georgia. Appendix
V, Report, U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries for 1930, pp. 61-100, illus., 1931.
Goode, G. Brown and associates. The fisheries and fishery industries of the United
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"fr 594434—44
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